Politically speaking, especially after the conquest of Constantinople and despite its
vast territories in Asia and Africa, the Ottoman Empire was essentially a European power. However,
in terms of its cultural belonging of the Ottoman Empire and its impact over the state bureaucracy,
the matters of dynastic succession, and relations between the political actors of the realm,
the Sublime Porte was undoubtedly different from Europe and was more of a mix of Turkic and Islamic
traditions and laws. In Europe, different royal families were in a constant cycle of marriage
alliances and spouses of kings and emperors of Europe were of royal descent. This was radically
different in the Ottoman Empire, as for a very long time the Sultans would not have legal wives,
but have numerous concubines living in the Harem, who would provide the Ottoman dynasty with heirs.
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In Islamic tradition, a harem is a place, where the female members of the household reside and the
non-related males are prohibited from entering it. The word itself is derived from the Arabic
“haram”, which means “forbidden”. In the Ottoman Empire harem housed the Sultan’s concubines,
mothers, sisters, aunts, grandmothers, other relatives, along with their children and the
servants working there, including eunuchs who oversaw the proper operation of the harem.
The primary purpose of the Harem was to ensure the continuity of the royal dynasty and provide a
sultan with heirs. The concubines and servants of the harem were usually women taken as war spoils
from lands captured by the Ottomans or sometimes gifted to the Sultan as a token of respect or as
an attempt to get a favour. The majority of these women were Christian, who would convert to Islam,
and they would receive rigorous training on knitting, cooking, playing musical instruments,
dancing, poetry, court manners, Quran reading and more amidst a military-like discipline.
The Harem was headed by the Valide Sultan, the Sultan’s mother, who decided which of the
Harem women were ready to entertain her son. A sultan could have a relationship with four
women at a time. Such women would be called a Kadin, which would literally mean a “woman”,
but could also mean a “wife” in this context. The title of Iqbal would be given to the favourite
women of the Sultan. In order to limit the potential power of women, the harem women were
allowed to bore only one child for the Sultan. After the male offsprings of the Sultan came of
age they were sent to act as governors of the Ottoman provinces together with their mothers
to learn the craft of governance, along with possibly minimizing the potential of mothers
to meddle in politics. There potential heirs to the Ottoman throne would be brought up by
their mothers, who would often exert a very high degree of influence over their sons.
Usually, sultans had minimal contact with their sons, since they lived far from the capital.
The Ottoman Empire succession rules were different from the European monarchies, as the firstborn
male son was not an automatic choice. Sultans would refrain from naming their heirs, but often
gave provinces closer to the capital to their preferred sons, which allowed them to get news
of the death of the Sultan first and to proclaim themselves Sultan before their brothers even got
the news. Up until the 17th century, a new sultan would kill his brothers to prevent any chance of
internal strife. Lack of concrete succession rules and willingness of mothers to protect their sons
from being murdered was going to have an impact on the Ottoman internal politics sooner or later.
Historian Leslie Peirce states that by the mid-16th century the very essence of the Ottoman
state was changing. The Empire was transitioning from a military state into becoming a bureaucratic
state, since the further territorial expansion of the Ottoman Empire, particularly towards the west,
was getting increasingly problematic and unlikely. Transition into a bureaucratic state
was inevitably going to increase the role of the institutions and the Harem was one of the
institutions, which was going to become more prominent in connection with the transition
This process started during the rule of Suleiman the Magnificent.
We cannot tell the story of the Sultanate of Women without talking about Hurrem Sultan. A slave woman
named Roxelana of Ruthenian origins probably entered the Harem, when she was in her teens.
Roxelana got a new name Hurrem - “the cheerful one” and very soon rose through the ranks of women
in the Harem. However, by the time she became one of Sultan Suleiman’s favourites, one of his
consorts Mahidevran had already given birth to a son Mustafa. Soon Hurrem became the favourite of
the Sultan and gave birth to 6 children, 5 boys, and 1 girl, in an unprecedented break from the
tradition of Sultan’s consorts giving birth to only one child for him. Hurrem became the most
powerful person in the Harem, especially following the death of Suleiman’s mother Sultan Hafsa.
In 1534, Sultan Suleiman broke with another tradition of the Ottoman Empire
and legally married Hurrem after setting her free from formal slavery. Hurrem Sultan became
the first consort to become a Haseki Sultan, making her equal in status to European empresses.
Unlike previous concubines and lovers of Sultans, Hurrem moved into the imperial Topkapi Palace
and got closer to the center of political power in the Ottoman Empire.
In another break from traditions, she did not leave with her sons on their regional governorship
assignments and stayed back in Constantinople. Suleiman and Hurrem enjoyed a loving relationship.
Hurrem was said to be a smart and intelligent person turning into a political confidant of
Sultan Suleiman and an important political player in the capital. Letters of Hurrem and Suleiman
prove that she was advising him on politics and internal events. Some claim that Hurrem
influenced Suleiman into ordering the killing of Sultan’s oldest son Mustafa and Grand Vizier
Ibrahim Pasha in order to ensure that one of her own sons survives and becomes a new Sultan.
Hurrem Sultan was influential even in the foreign affairs of the Ottoman Empire.
Her Ruthenian origins was one of the factors behind the very friendly relationship between the
Ottomans and Poland. Hurrem was the first consort known for having direct correspondence with
a foreign leader, as two of her letters to the Polish King Sigismund II have survived. In these
letters, she congratulates the King on ascending on the Polish throne and sends assurances of
friendship between the two states. Hurrem Sultan died in 1558,
but her loving relationship with Suleiman the Magnificent and her political acumen ushered in
the new era in Ottoman history - the Sultanate of Women. Following the death of her mother Hurrem,
Mihrimah Sultan became the most influential woman in the realm. She was married to the
Ottoman governor of Croatian origin Rustem Pasha, who later rose to the position of Grand Vizier.
While Rustem Pasha was a capable man, Hurrem’s and Mihrimah’s support was important in his rise.
Mihrimah was unique as she was neither a Haseki, nor a Valide, but still had a massive political
influence and financial influence due to being one of the richest individuals of the Empire.
Even after the deaths of her father Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent
and her husband Rustem Pasha, Mihrimah Sultan maintained her influence, as her brother Selim II
ascended the throne and sought her advice and financial support.
Mihrimah has also been attributed by historians for he influence in foreign policy.
In the 1560s she tried to urge her father for another campaign against Malta and promised him
to finance the construction of 400 ships from her own pocket. She played a key role in the
normalization of relations between the Ottoman Empire and its vassal the Republic of Ragusa.
Nurbanu Sultan, wife of Selim II was another prominent figure of the Sultanate of Women.
Her origin is still disputed as there versions of her being of Jewish, Venetian, or Greek descent.
She was sent to Konya, to Prince Selim’s harem. Nurbanu was known for her beauty and intelligence
and soon became the favourite of Selim and gave birth to three of his children,
including the future Sultan Murad III. Once Selim II became the Sultan, Nurbanu moved
together with him to Topkapi Palace as the Haseki Sultan. Nurbanu Sultan’s influence particularly
increased following Mihrimah Sultan’s death. Selim II’s reign was short and Nurbanu did
everything possible to make sure that her son Murad became the next emperor.
It is said that Nurbanu Sultan hid the fact of Selim’s death for twelve days until Murad had
arrived in the capital. During Murad III’s rule, Nurbanu Sultan’s power only rose,
as her political influence could only be matched by that of experienced Grand
Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha. In terms of the Sultanate of Women, Murad III’s is notable for
the transfer of the Harem into the Topkapi Palace, a move which only increased the influence of the
Harem on the governance of the Sublime Porte. Valide Sultan Nurbanu was active in directing
foreign affairs of the state as well, as she is known for corresponding with the Queen of France,
Catherine de Medici, along with being an ad vocate of good relations with Venice,
something which might have been caused by her possible Venetian origin. She was also known
for fighting against the influence of Murad III’s only concubine in his early rule the Albanian-born
Safiye Sultan, who became Haseki Sultan after giving birth to a son. Nurbanu Sultan was unhappy
that Murad III remained devoted to Safiye and had only one heir and basically forced him to have
sexual relations with other women of the Harem in trying to diminish the influence of Safiye Sultan.
The latter became truly influential only after the death of Murad III and the ascension of her
son Mehmed III to power. Like her predecessor, Safiye Sultan was very powerful and had a great
deal of influence over her son. During her tenure as Valide Sultan, she had a high degree of control
over the Ottoman finances and political matters, as Mehmed III would give almost all power to his
mother at times of his travels and campaigns. Safiye Sultan actively pushed for good relations
with Venice, along with being known for having correspondence with the English Queen Elizabeth I,
who gave her a carriage as a present, which Safiye Sultan often used in her travels
inside Constantinople, a thing unheard of in the conservative Ottoman Empire.
The period of Safiye Sultan’s rule is remembered for instability, as numerous Grand Viziers had
been appointed and removed often within a few months of starting their duties. Her influence was
highly unpopular among the Ottoman military class. When in 1603 Safiye Sultan’s grandson Ahmed I came
to power, she was banished to the Old Palace and was removed from the seat of power for good.
Ahmed I was fond of one of his concubines, Köşem of Bosnian, Morean or Greek descent, and possibly
his legal wife, who bore him 7 children, including 4 sons, and was titled Haseki Sultan. Despite his
affection for Köşem, Ahmed I was not interested in sharing his power with the women of the court
and his 14-year rule should be remembered as a period of interruption of the Sultanate of Women.
Nevertheless, she might have had some influence over Ahmed I’s refusal to continue the tradition
of fratricide in the Ottoman ruling dynasty possibly in order to protect her own children.
Ahmed I’s death paved the way for the series of succession crises, mentally unfit sultans,
and general instability in the Ottoman Empire. Following a very short reign Ahmed’s brother
Mustafa I was deposed and Ahmed’s son from another concubine Osman II became a new sultan.
Despite being only his step-mother, Köşem had certain influence over Osman II, who grew up
in the same Harem quarters and had an affinity towards Köşem. But only 4 years into his reign
Osman II was murdered by the Janissaries for attempting to reform the Ottoman military.
While Köşem Sultan had retired to the Old Palace during the reigns of Mustafa I and Osman II,
her political influence was still prominent as she was part of the group, which deposed Mustafa
I after his short second reign. Now Köşem Sultan became the Valide Sultan and the official regent
of her underage son Murad IV. Köşem Sultan was a de facto ruler of the Ottoman Empire in this
period, as she would attend the Divan, meetings of the ministers of her son, behind curtains covering
her from the other participants of the meetings. After Murad IV came of age he removed his
mother from power, who nevertheless was able to persuade him against killing his brother Ibrahim.
But Murad’s early death led to Ibrahim becoming crowned, despite the fact that he was utterly
unfit for reigning. Köşem Sultan was aware of this and did her best to rule in his stead,
while encouraging Ibrahim I to entertain himself with the women of the Harem instead of ruling.
Very soon another clique aiming to depose her son gathered and informed Köşem Sultan of their
intentions, to which she agreed despite being his mother. But yet again Köşem Sultan would become a
regent, this time to her grandson Mehmed IV, who was only 7-years old at the time of his ascension.
Nevertheless, Köşem Sultan now had a female rival, Terhan Sultan, Mehmed’s mother,
who did not want to cede control to her mother-in-law. The competition between the two
wreaked havoc on the state as the Ottoman Empire was suffering from internal strife and rebellions.
Both sides plotted against each other and in the end, a group of Turhan Sultan’s supporters managed
to get into Köşem Sultan’s chambers and murder her in 1651. Immediately after this Turhan Sultan
exerted influence over the political affairs in the Ottoman Empire, but 5 years later Koprulu
Mehmed Pasha was appointed a Grand Vizier, while Turhan Sultan basically retired from politics.
This is considered to be the end of the Sultanate of Women.
There are numerous factors that made the Sultanate of Women possible in the Ottoman Empire. What
started as a story of love between arguably the most powerful and influential Ottoman Sultan
Suleiman the Magnificent and his legal wife Hurrem led to more than 100 years of women’s
domination in the Ottoman Empire. Moving of the imperial harem to the imperial palace,
breaking with the tradition not to marry or have more than one child with each woman of the harem,
end of the practice of fratricide, ceasing to send heirs to Anatolian provinces, series of
unfit and weak rulers are among the key factors behind the Sultanate of Women. Valide Sultans
and Haseki Sultans ruled as regents, deposed grand viziers, plotted deposition of sultans,
advocated for war or peace with foreign countries. Historians still dispute whether
the Sultanate of Women was one of the causes of the prolonged decline of the Ottoman Empire,
or whether the women of power actually saved the Porte from chaos and disintegration amidst the
period of child sultans and unfit rulers. Along with having immense political and financial power,
Valide and Haseki Sultans also funded the construction of monuments, public works and
engaged in charity to sway public opinion in their favour. Mosques, schools, public baths,
and foundations had been built in this period and some bear the names of their sponsors.
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