A skyhook is a proposed momentum exchange tether that aims to reduce the
cost of placing payloads into space. A heavy orbiting station is connected to a
cable which extends down towards the surface. Payloads, which are much
lighter than the station, are hooked to the end of the cable as it passes, and
are then flung into orbit by rotation of the cable around the centre of mass. The
station can then be reboosted to its original altitude by electromagnetic
propulsion, rocket propulsion, or by deorbiting another object equal in mass
to the payload. A skyhook differs from a geostationary
orbit space elevator in that a skyhook would be much shorter and would not come
in contact with the surface of the Earth. A skyhook would require a
suborbital launch vehicle to reach its lower end, while a space elevator would
not. History
Different synchronous non-rotating orbiting skyhook concepts and versions
have been proposed, starting with Isaacs in 1966, Artsutanov in 1967, Pearson and
Colombo in 1975, Kalaghan in 1978, and Braginski in 1985. The version with best
potential involve a much shorter tether in low Earth orbit which rotates in its
orbital plane and whose ends brush the upper Earth atmosphere, with the
rotational motion cancelling the orbital motion at ground level. These "rotating"
skyhook versions were proposed by Moravec in 1976, and Sarmont in 1994.
When the Italian scientist Giuseppe Colombo proposed in the early 1970s the
idea of using a tidally stabilized tether for downward-looking Earth
observation satellites, NASA officially begun to assess in 1979 the possible
scientific applications for long tethers in space and whether the development of
a tethered system was justified. This resulted in a Shuttle-based tether
system: the TSS-1R mission, launched 22 February 1996 on STS-75 that focused in
characterizing basic space tether behavior and space plasma physics. The
Italian satellite was deployed to a distance of 19.7 km from the Space
Shuttle. An engineer speculated in 1994 that the
skyhook could be cost competitive with what is realistically thought to be
achievable using a space elevator. In 2000 and 2001, Boeing Phantom Works,
with a grant from NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts, performed a detailed
study of the engineering and commercial feasibility of various skyhook designs.
They studied in detail a specific variant of this concept, called
"Hypersonic Space Tether Orbital Launch System" or HASTOL. This design called
for a hypersonic ramjet or scramjet aircraft to intercept a rotating hook
while flying at Mach 10. While no skyhook has yet been built,
there have been a number of flight experiments exploring various aspects of
the space tether concept in general. Types of skyhooks
= Non-rotating= A non-rotating skyhook is a vertically
oriented, gravity-gradient-stabilized tether whose lower endpoint would not
reach the surface of the planet it is orbiting. As a result, it would appear
to be hanging from the sky, hence the name skyhook.
In 1990, E. Sarmont proposed using a non-rotating skyhook as part of a space
transportation system. Sub-orbital launch vehicles would fly to the bottom
end of the tether, and spacecraft bound for higher orbit or returning from
higher orbit would use the upper end of the tether. He expanded on the idea in a
second paper published in 1994. Other scientists and engineers have
investigated and added to the concept. The non-rotating skyhook is not the same
as a surface to geostationary orbit space elevator. The non-rotating skyhook
is a much shorter version that would not touch the surface of the Earth and would
be much lighter in mass. It would work by hanging a cable from a relatively low
altitude orbit to just above the Earth's atmosphere. Since the lower end of the
cable would be moving at less than orbital velocity for its altitude, a
launch vehicle flying to the bottom of the skyhook would be able to carry a
larger payload while being assisted into orbit by the device. This type of
skyhook would start out as short as 200 km and grow to over 4,000 km in length
using a bootstrap method that would take advantage of the reduction in launch
costs that come with increases in tether length. With a long enough cable,
single-stage to skyhook flight with a reusable launch vehicle would become
possible. In the case of the 200 km overall
length, 150 km working length, non-rotating skyhook, the lower endpoint
of the cable would be moving at 96.67% of orbital velocity for its altitude. A
longer cable with a greater mass would mean that the speed of an arriving
spacecraft could be decreased, thus lowering costs. Once the working length
of the lower half of the non-rotating skyhook reaches 1,047 km, the lower
endpoint of the cable would be moving at 80% of orbital velocity for its
altitude. A 2000 Boeing report concluded that "in
general, the non-spinning tether skyhook concept does not look competitive with
the rotating tether concepts." = Rotating=
By rotating the tether around the orbiting center of mass in a direction
opposite to the orbital motion, the speed of the hook relative to the ground
can be reduced. This reduces the required strength of the tether, and
makes coupling easier. The rotation of the tether can be made
to exactly match the orbital speed. In this configuration, the hook would trace
out a path similar to a cardioid. From the point of view of the ground, the
hook would appear to descend almost vertically, come to a halt, and then
ascend again. This configuration minimises aerodynamic drag, and thus
allows the hook to descend deep into the atmosphere. However, according to the
HASTOL study, a skyhook of this kind in Earth orbit would require a very large
counterweight, on the order of 1000–2000 times the mass of the payload, and the
tether would need to be mechanically reeled in after collecting each payload
in order to maintain synchronization between the tether rotation and its
orbit. Phase I of Boeing's HASTOL study,
published in 2000, proposed a 600km-long tether, in an equatorial orbit at
610–700 km altitude, rotating with a tip speed of 3.5 km/s. This would give the
tip a ground speed of 3.6 km/s, which would be matched by a hypersonic
airplane carrying the payload module, with transfer at an altitude of 100 km.
The tether would be made of existing commercially-available materials: mostly
Spectra 2000, except for the outer 20km which would be made of heat-resistant
Zylon PBO. With a nominal payload mass of 14 tonnes, the Spectra/Zylon tether
would weigh 1300 tonnes, or 90 times the mass of the payload. The authors stated:
The primary message we want to leave with the Reader is: "We don't need magic
materials like 'Buckminster-Fuller-carbon-nanotubes' to
make the space tether facility for a HASTOL system. Existing materials will
do." The second phase of the HASTOL study,
published in 2001, proposed increasing the intercept airspeed to Mach 15-17,
and increasing the intercept altitude to 150 km, which would reduce the necessary
tether mass by a factor of three. The higher speed would be achieved by using
a reusable rocket stage instead of a purely air-breathing aircraft. The study
concluded that although there are no "fundamental technical show-stoppers",
substantial improvement in technology would be needed. In particular, there
was concern that a bare Spectra 2000 tether would be rapidly eroded by atomic
oxygen; this component was given a technology readiness level of 2.
See also Mass driver
Orbital ring Railgun
Space fountain Space tether missions
References