Operation Tidal Wave was an air attack by bombers of the United States Army Air Forces
based in Libya on nine oil refineries around Ploiești, Romania on 1 August 1943, during
World War II. It was a strategic bombing mission and part of the "oil campaign" to deny petroleum-based
fuel to the Axis. The mission resulted in "no curtailment of overall product output",
and so was deemed unsuccessful. This mission was one of the costliest for
the USAAF in the European Theater, with 53 aircraft and 660 aircrewmen lost. It was the
worst loss ever suffered by the USAAF on a single mission, and its date was later referred
to as "Black Sunday". Five Medals of Honor and numerous Distinguished Service Crosses
were awarded to Operation Tidal Wave crew members.
Preparations Romania had been a major power in the oil
industry since the 1800s. It was one of the largest producers in Europe and Ploiesti was
a major part of that production.. In 1943, crude and refined oil from the Ploiești oil
fields provided about 35% of all Axis oil supplies.
German air defenses In June 1942, 13 B-24 Liberators of the "Halverson
project" attacked Ploiești. Though damage was small, Germany responded by putting strong
anti-aircraft defenses around Ploiești. Luftwaffe General Alfred Gerstenberg built one of the
heaviest and best-integrated air defense networks in Europe. The defenses included several hundred
large-caliber 88mm guns and 10.5 cm FlaK 38 anti-aircraft guns, and many more small-caliber
guns. The latter were concealed in haystacks, railroad cars, and mock buildings. The Luftwaffe
had three fighter groups within flight range of Ploiești. Gerstenberg also counted on
warnings from the Luftwaffe signals intelligence station in Athens, which monitored Allied
preparations as far away as North Africa. Mission plan
The Ninth Air Force was responsible for the overall conduct of the raid, and the partially
formed Eighth Air Force provided three additional bomb groups. All the bombers employed were
B-24 Liberators. Colonel Jacob E. Smart planned the operation,
based on HALPRO's experiences. HALPRO had encountered minimal air defenses in its raid;
so the planners decided Tidal Wave would be executed by day, and that the attacking bombers
would approach at low altitude to avoid detection by German radar. Training included extensive
review of detailed sand table models, practice raids over a mock-up of the target in the
Libyan desert and practical exercises over a number of secondary targets in July to prove
the viability of such a low- level strike. The bombers to be used were re-equipped with
bomb-bay fuel tanks to increase their fuel capacity to 3,100 gallons.
The operation was to consist of 178 bombers with a total of 1,751 aircrew, one of the
largest commitments of American heavy bombers and crewmen up to that time. The planes were
to fly from airfields near Benghazi, Libya. They were to cross the Mediterranean and the
Adriatic Sea, pass near the island of Corfu, cross over the Pindus Mountains in Albania,
cross southern Yugoslavia, enter southwestern Romania, and turn east toward Ploiești. Reaching
Ploiești, they were to locate pre-determined checkpoints, approach their targets from the
north, and strike all targets simultaneously. For political reasons, the Allied planners
decided to avoid the city of Ploiești, so that it would not be bombed by accident.
Flight to Romania
Early on the morning of 1 August 1943, the five groups comprising the strike force began
lifting off from their home air fields around Benghazi. Large amounts of dust kicked up
during take-off caused limited visibility and strained engines already carrying the
burden of large bomb loads and additional fuel. These conditions contributed to the
loss of one aircraft during take-off, but 177 of the planned 178 aircraft departed safely.
The formation reached the Adriatic Sea without further incident; however aircraft #28 "Wongo
Wongo" belonging to the 376th Bombardment Group and piloted by Lt. Brian Flavelle began
to fly erratically before plunging into the sea due to unknown causes. Lt. Guy Iovine—a
personal friend of Flavelle and piloting aircraft #23 Desert Lilly—descended from the formation
in order to look for survivors, narrowly missing aircraft Brewery Wagon piloted by Lt. John
Palm. No survivors were seen, and due to the additional weight of fuel, Iovine was unable
to regain altitude to rejoin the formation and resume course to Ploiești.
The resulting confusion was compounded by the inability to regain cohesion due to strict
radio silence maintained as per mission guidance. Ten other aircrews opted to return to friendly
air fields following the incident and those aircraft which remained faced the 9,000 ft
climb over the Pindus mountains, which were shrouded in cloud cover. Although all five
groups made the climb around 11,000 ft, the 376th and 93rd, using high power settings,
began to lose the trailing formations, causing variations in speed and time which disrupted
the careful synchronization of the group attacks deemed so important by Smart. The possible
threat to successful execution was deemed to be of secondary concern to the operational
security of the mission by senior leadership. The American leaders were unaware that while
their intentions were not precisely known, their presence had been duly noted by the
Germans. Although the need to rebuild their formations was clear and well within the contingency
for breaking radio silence, the strike would proceed without correction, a judgment that
would later prove costly. Although now well strung out on approach to
Piteşti, all five groups would make the navigational check point 65 mi from Ploiești. At Câmpina,
the 389th Bomb Group departed as planned for its separate but synchronous approach to the
mission target. Continuing from Piteşti, Col. Keith K. Compton and Gen. Ent made a
navigational judgment that would prove especially costly. At Târgovişte, halfway to the next
check point at Floreşti, Compton followed the incorrect railway line for his turn toward
Ploiești, setting his group and Lt. Col. Addison Baker's 93rd Bomb Group on a course
for Bucharest. In the process, Ent and Compton went against the advice of their airplane's
navigator and the Halverson Project veteran Cpt. Harold Wicklund. Now in the face of an
impending disaster, many crews chose to break radio silence and draw attention to the navigational
error. Meanwhile, both groups flew headlong into Gerstenberg's extensive air defenses
around the Bucharest area, which they would now face in addition to those still awaiting
them around Ploiești. Attacks
Lt. Col. Baker and his co-pilot Maj. John L. Jerstad, who had already flown a full tour
of duty while stationed in England, would now succumb to the effects of the extensive
air defense array . Continuing through the intense defensive barrage, damage to their
aircraft forced Baker and Jerstad to jettison their bomb load in order to maintain lead
of the formation over their target at the Columbia Aquila refinery. Despite heavy losses
by the 93rd, Baker and Jerstad maintained course and, once clear, began to climb away.
Realizing the aircraft was no longer controllable, both men maintained the climb in order to
gain time for the crew to abandon the aircraft. Although none survived, both Baker and Jerstad
would be posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for maintaining their successful approach
to Columbia Aquila and their efforts to save the crew of Hell's Wench.
Maj. Ramsay D. Potts flying The Duchess and Maj. George S. Brown aboard Queenie, encountering
heavy smoke over Columbia Aquila, would take two additional elements of the 93rd and successfully
drop their payloads over the Astra Romana, Unirea Orion, and Columbia Aquila refineries.
In all, the 93rd lost 11 aircraft over their targets in Ploiești. One of the bombers,
Jose Carioca, was shot down by a Romanian IAR 80 fighter, which went into a half roll
and moved swiftly under the B-24 upside down, raking its belly with bullets. The bomber
crashed into Ploiești Women's Prison. The three-story building exploded in flames, and
only 40 women survived the disaster. There were no survivors from Jose Carioca crew.
Concordia Vega and first Steaua Română attacks Air defenses were heavy over the 376th's target,
and Gen. Ent instructed Compton to attack "targets of opportunity." Most of the 376th
B-24s bombed the Steaua Română refinery at Câmpina from the east, and five headed
directly into the already smoldering conflagration over the Concordia Vega refinery. At Câmpina,
air defenses on overlooking hills were able to fire down into the formation, and IAR 80
aircraft downed 376th aircraft. Astra Română and Columbia Aquila attacks
With the 93rd and 376th engaged over the target area, Col. John R. Kane of the 98th Bomb Group
and Col. Leon W. Johnson of the 44th Bomb Group made their prescribed turn at Floresti
and proceeded to their respective targets at the Asta Romana and Columbia Aquila refineries.
Both groups would find German and Romanian defenses on full alert and faced the full
effects of now raging oil fires, heavy smoke, secondary explosions, and delayed-fuse bombs
dropped by Baker's 93rd Bomb Group on their earlier run. Both Kane and Johnson's approach,
parallel to the Floresti-to-Ploiești railway had the unfortunate distinction of encountering
Gerstenberg's disguised flak train. At tree-top level, around 50 ft above the ground, the
98th would find themselves to the left and the 44th on the right. The advantage, however,
would rest with the 98th and 44th, whose gunners quickly responded to the threat, disabling
the locomotive and killing multiple air defense crews.
With the effects of the 93rd and 376th's runs causing difficulties locating and bombing
their primary targets, both Kane and Johnson did not deviate from their intended targets,
taking heavy losses in the process. Their low approach even enabled gunners to engage
in continued ground suppression of air defense crews from directly above their targets. For
their leadership and heroism, both were awarded the Medal of Honor. Lt. Col. James T. Posey
took 21 of the 44th's aircraft on a separate assigned attack run on the Creditul Minier
refinery just south of Ploiești. Although air defense batteries had already heavily
engaged the 93rd, Posey was fully received by the same emplacements. Maintaining a continued
low-level approach into the target area took some of the still heavily laden aircraft through
tall grass and damage was caused by low-level obstructions. Posey and his aircraft—equipped
with heavier 1,000 lb bombs—managed to successfully find their marks at Creditul
Minier, without loss to the formation. Second Steaua Română attack
The last TIDAL WAVE attack bombed the Steaua Română refinery northwest of Ploiești)
at Câmpina. The 389th attack led by Col. Jack Wood was as rehearsed at Benghazi. The
damage caused by the 376th and 389th attacks heavily damaged the refinery, which did not
resume production for the duration of the war. The 389th lost four aircraft over the
target area, including B-24 Ole Kickapoo flown by 2nd Lt. Lloyd Herbert Hughes. After hits
to Ole Kickapoo only 30 feet over the target area, the detonation of previously dropped
bombs had ignited fuel leaking from the B-24. Hughes maintained course for bombardier 2nd
Lt. John A. McLoughlin to bomb, and the B-24 subsequently crash-landed in a river bed.
Hughes and five crewmembers were killed, four survived the crash but died of injuries, and
two gunners became prisoners of war. Bulgarian Airforce
On their way over Bulgaria, the B-24s were intercepted by three fighter groups, 10 M-109s
from Karlovo, four Avia B-534s from Bozhurishte and 10 Avia B-534s from Vrashdebna airport.
The pilots Sub-lieutenant Peter Bochev, Captain Tschudomir Toplodolski, Lieutenant Stoyan
Stoyanov and Sublieutenant Hristo Krastev gained their first kills for the Bulgarian
Air Force of the war. The new fighter aces were decorated afterwards by Tsar Boris III
of Bulgaria personally with the Order of Bravery, the first time in 25 years. Iron Crosses were
awarded a month later from the German embassy. Result
Only 88 B-24s returned to Libya, of which 55 had battle damage. Losses included 44 to
air defenses and additional B-24s that ditched in the Mediterranean or were interned. Some
were diverted. One B-24 with 365 bullet holes in it landed in Libya 14 hours after departing;
its survival was due to the light armament of the Bulgarian Avia B-534.
310 aircrewmen were killed, 108 were captured by the Axis, and 78 were interned in Turkey.
Three of the five Medals of Honor were awarded posthumously. Allied assessment of the attack
estimated a loss of 40% of the refining capacity at the Ploiești refineries, although some
refineries were largely untouched. Most of the damage was repaired within weeks, after
which the net output of fuel was greater than before the raid. Circa September, the Enemy
Oil Committee appraisal of Ploiești bomb damage indicated "no curtailment of overall
product output" as many of the refineries had been operating previously below maximum
capacity. Through emergency bomb drops on secondary
targets, there were casualties at Drenta, Elena, Byala, Ruse, Boychinovtsi, Veliko Tarnovo,
Plovdiv, Lom and Oak - Tulovo. Given the large and unbalanced loss of aircraft
and the limited damage to the targets, Operation Tidal Wave is considered a strategic failure
of the American side.
Ninth Air Force and Eighth Air Force order of battle
Ninth Air Force98th Bombardment Group, Col. John R. Kane°
376th Bombardment Group, Col. Keith K. Compton°°
Eighth Air Force 44th Bombardment Group, Col. Leon W. Johnson°
93rd Bombardment Group, Lt.Col. Addison E. Baker°, Maj. John L. Jerstad°
389th Bombardment Group, Col. Jack W. Wood°°, 2nd Lt. Lloyd Herbert Hughes°
°Awarded Medal of Honor °°Awarded Distinguished Service Cross
References