It was a cold and wet September day, 9 AD. Mist and drizzle covered three Roman legions and
their followers traversing through the dense and rugged Teutoburg Forest. Under the governor of the
Province Germania, Varus, his officer, doubling as Cherusci chieftain, Arminius organised the trek
towards the Roman winter quarters. The column stretched from the vanguard all the way to the
baggage wagons in the rear. The long line slowly marched on. Nobody suspected thousands of hidden
eyes among the leaves and trees, hiding under the cloak of nature, following their every move.
What followed is commonly considered one of the most decisive battles in history.
[The Wild Frontiers]
Around the turn of the millennium, Tiberius and several Roman commanders led brutal campaigns
north of the Danube. The goal was to subjugate the
loosely organised Germanic tribes living in the region. In 7 BC, Rome added the
region to the Empire as Province Germania. However, subduing the tribes was difficult,
especially because of the lack of centralisation and an administrative centre to control the
region. Not to mention the tribes' aversion to taxes and general distrust against the Romans.
At the time, about a dozen major tribes and many smaller ones lived in the region. Some of them,
like the Batavi and Cherusci, were loyal allies of the Romans. Others, such as the Marcomanni,
were forced into an alliance by Tiberius. It took rough and ruthless campaigning, but
around this time, it seemed this new Province was on its way to being properly Romanised.
When in 6 AD tribes unleashed a massive revolt in Illyricum, Tiberius left Germania with eight of
the eleven legions stationed there. Legate Publius Quinctilius Varus was appointed as its first
official governor. A celebrated administrator, having served as governor in Africa and Syria,
he seemed like a suitable man for the region. An ancient source sums up his Syrian governorship
as follows: "He entered a rich province as a poor man, and left a poor province as a rich man."
With the strength of three legions, cavalry, and equal size of local auxiliary units,
his army was still a force to be reckoned with. Aside from military strength, the Romans had
a bargaining chip. A common practice to ensure the loyalty, or at least subservience of tribes,
was to take children of chieftains to Rome and have them receive a Roman education.
These boys became soldiers and, if talented, commanders. Among these boys was Arminius,
born to Cheruskan chieftain Segimir. Velleius' description of Arminius survives:
"A young nobleman, strong of hand and quick of mind and far more intelligent than your
average barbarian. ... the ardour of his face and eyes showed the burning spirit within.
He had fought on our side in previous campaigns and earned the right to become a Roman citizen;
indeed, he was even elevated to the rank of Equestrian."
Showing an excellent talent for military matters, Arminius distinguished himself
by helping crush the revolt in Illyricum. Attaining incredible prestige, Arminius' next
mission was to aid Varus in maintaining control of the new Province Germania.
Once he arrived in the Province, Varus ensured he became the new chieftain of the Cherusci.
He married Thusnelda, the daughter of the previous Cheruscan chieftain Segestes.
Though Segestes was a loyal Roman ally, sources indicate he opposed the marriage,
and bad blood grew after the couple eloped. Varus trusted Arminius blindly. But his protege
was planning a Germanic uprising behind his back. This was a challenging task,
as tribes weren't organised and often were traditional enemies of each other.
Though his exact motivations are unknown, multiple factors likely caused Arminius' resentment.
Some indicate he wanted to return to Rome, but he was forced into the role of chieftain. Seeing
the heavy taxation on Germanic tribes and the brutal repression by the Romans was another.
And as the adage goes: nothing unites a group more than a common enemy.
Slowly but surely, the organising of a widespread uprising against the Romans began taking shape.
Arminius ensured Varus continued trusting and relying on him.
He often asked the governor to resolve disputes between Germanic tribes, flattering his ego. It
isn't like Varus was kept in the dark, as Segestes betrayed Arminius at one point. But Varus did not
heed the warning and accredited it to a family dispute. When Segestes proposed Varus kept
both him and Arminius in chains until the truth came out, the Roman commander brushed him off.
In late summer 9 AD, the campaigning season ran to an end. So the Romans began preparing their
annual trek towards their winter quarters on the Rhine. Arminius volunteered to organise the march,
much to Varus' delight. While planning the trek, Arminius notified
Varus of several supposed uprisings in the region. With the size of Rome's army, it would be an easy
task to crush them. To do so, Arminius suggested they march through the Teutoburg Forest, a densely
wooded forest with hills and swampy terrain. Varus agreed, as Arminius knew the territory and would
surely lead the Romans in the right direction. Varus ordered scouts to make sure the passage
was safe to be sure they were not trekking into an ambush. But these scouts likely were
Germanic auxiliaries who knew of Arminius' plans. Varus still suspected nothing. Things
went just like Arminius wanted them to. As the Romans trekked through the woods,
it became clear the terrain was not ideally suited for their military formations. The Roman legions
17, 18 and 19, some 18.000 soldiers, straggled through the narrow paths. Usually, Roman armies
travelled in formation, but now they had no other option but to stretch the column thin,
and walk in lines of 2 or 3, tops. Travelling with them were some 10.000 camp followers,
family members, tradespeople and a lengthy trail of baggage wagons. Archaeological evidence of
mainly Roman coins reveals the stretch of the Roman line was up to 20 kilometres in length.
Deep within the Teutoburg forest, Arminius left the column. He either informed Varus he was going
to gather more auxiliary units or was going to scout ahead. Trusting him, Varus continued the
march. Little did he know Arminius' did gather troops, but not to aid the Romans. Instead,
he took command of between 20 and 30.000 Germanic warriors who had gathered for the final showdown.
Germanic peoples included Arminius' Cherusci, but also Marsi, Chatti, Bructeri and many more.
The Roman column had to trek through a narrow, rugged area, between the 'Great Bog', a swamp,
and the Kalkriese Hill. Due to the clattering of their equipment, no one heard the rustling of
leaves as thousands of hidden eyes followed them. The Romans passed through the bottleneck.
The vanguard passed with no problem, but with a part of the army in front,
and a massive row of baggage wagons behind, there was no room for manoeuvring for the
strung-out position of the army. Still, nobody suspected their every move was being followed.
[Battle sequence]
Then, out of nowhere, loud thumps. Trees fell down on the path. A barrage of spears and
javelins filled the sky, before crashing into the Roman columns. The damage of the surprise
attack was enormous. The legionaries tried to take their defensive positions as well as they could,
while being pestered by missiles. The first, significant cracks were already showing,
especially because infantry armour was designed for close combat, not against sharp projectiles.
And no melee fighting had even taken place yet. Soldiers panicked during the initial
ambush, but they had no place to run towards but north. Many of them fled into the swamp.
Wearing their heavy kit, survival was nothing short of impossible. To the rear, where the
majority of the army, the baggage wagons and Varus himself walked, nothing hinted at the disaster
taking place in front of them. In fact, when the column suddenly stopped marching, their initial
reaction was to push on. This only worsened the situation for those soldiers stuck in the ambush.
Then, a loud rallying cry marked the charge of hundreds, if not thousands of Germanic warriors.
The already battered Roman lines certainly put up a fight, but fortune was not on their side.
Some of them managed to push back certain parts of the Barbarian line. However,
these soldiers soon discovered the constructed rampart between the hill and forest. It put them
at a significant disadvantage. Ferocious and merciless combat ensued on the narrow
pathway between the bog and elevation, as the Romans knew they were fighting for their lives.
To make things worse for the Romans, rain began pouring down.
It turned their heavy armour into their worst enemy, as being soaked with heavy equipment
impeded their flexibility even more. Nevertheless, the lightly armoured barbarians continued their
hit-and-run attacks, retreating in the dense woods whenever the Romans gained the upper hand.
After hours of the onslaught, word finally reached Varus of what was going on. But he
probably thought it was just a minor skirmish and gave the order for the rear to push forward
to aid their fellow soldiers. But all this time, up to 10.000 warriors had hidden on the eastern
side of the Kalkriese hill. The Roman column now passed this contingent of hidden warriors.
As they passed, these now charged into the column, launching a similar attack
as had happened to the Roman vanguard. Ferocious and brutal fighting broke out. A
several-kilometre long killing zone developed. Romans in the middle and rear of the column
broke rank, suffering similar fates as those of the vanguard who had tried to flee in vain.
Many drowned in the great bog; others were hunted down by warriors hiding in the woods.
As day turned into night, the Romans were still holding on despite the carnage. Finally,
a significant portion of the army reached a clearing. Varus ordered the establishment
of an impromptu military camp in the woods. It is safe to assume nearly the entire surviving
army was stuck in the woods. Arminius held off his initial attack because he was familiar with
Roman tactics. He knew that as they dug in, they would be able to fend off any attacks.
The night was quiet, and several of the supply wagons even reached the camp.
The following day, Varus ordered the burning of these wagons to speed up their advance.
As soon as the Romans left their encampment, the Germanic warriors continued their hit-and-run
attacks on the column. Archaeological evidence does not reveal if the Roman column erected a
new camp or retreated to their previous one. For sure, during the second night and third morning,
the Germanic tribes attacked the Romans non-stop. Somewhere during the onslaught,
the cavalry broke rank. It didn't matter as all of them were hunted down or drowned in the great bog.
For three entire days, the slaughter continued. Barely any Roman soldiers managed to escape.
Varus had been betrayed in the worst way possible. Seeing his situation as hopeless,
he took his life on the battlefield. A classical source attributed to Publius
Annius Florus described the Aftermath of the soldiers who surrendered:
"They put out the eyes of some men and cut off the hands of others.
They cut off the tongue of one man and sewed up his mouth, and one of the barbarians,
holding the tongue in his hand, exclaimed, 'That stopped you hissing, you viper.'
Following the battle of the Teutoburg Forest, Arminius laid siege to Aliso,
the nearby Roman fortress. The siege failed, but the Romans abandoned the region nonetheless.
Losing three legions meant the Romans lost over ten percent of their military force.
It was an enormous blow and an embarrassment to the mightiest state. It was the most
significant defeat of the powerful Empire that controlled territories from the Iberian Peninsula
all the way to Syria. It not only put a dent in their prestige but
also caused far-reaching consequences. Emperor Augustus disbanded his Germanic
auxiliary bodyguard and ordered a levy to counter any invasion by Germanic tribes.
The defeat marked the end of the Romans expanding to the north. The Rhine and Danube
now marked its northern border. But the expected Germanic invasion from the north never came.
Arminius was unable to unite the Germanic tribes in the subsequent years. Still, the
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest would certainly not be his last significant battle against the Romans.