Behavioural change theories are attempts to explain why behaviours change. These
theories cite environmental, personal, and behavioural characteristics as the
major factors in behavioural determination. In recent years, there
has been increased interest in the application of these theories in the
areas of health, education, criminology, energy and international development
with the hope that understanding behavioural change will improve the
services offered in these areas. General theories and models
Each behavioural change theory or model focuses on different factors in
attempting to explain behavioural change. Of the many that exist, the most
prevalent are the learning theories, Social Cognitive Theory, Theories of
Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour, Transtheoretical Model and the Health
Action Process Approach. Research has also been conducted regarding specific
elements of these theories, especially elements like self-efficacy that are
common to several of the theories. = Self-efficacy =
Self-efficacy is an individual's impression of their own ability to
perform a demanding or challenging task such as facing an exam or undergoing
surgery. This impression is based upon factors like the individual's prior
success in the task or in related tasks, the individual's physiological state,
and outside sources of persuasion.Self-efficacy is thought to
be predictive of the amount of effort an individual will expend in initiating and
maintaining a behavioural change, so although self-efficacy is not a
behavioural change theory per se, it is an important element of many of the
theories, including the Health Belief Model, the Theory of Planned Behaviour
and the Health Action Process Approach. = Learning theories/behaviour analytic
theories of change = From behaviourists such as B. F. Skinner
come the learning theories, which state that complex behaviour is learned
gradually through the modification of simpler behaviours. Imitation and
reinforcement play important roles in these theories, which state that
individuals learn by duplicating behaviours they observe in others and
that rewards are essential to ensuring the repetition of desirable behaviour.
As each simple behaviour is established through imitation and subsequent
reinforcement, the complex behaviour develops. When verbal behaviour is
established the organism can learn through rule-governed behaviour and thus
not all action needs to be contingency shaped.
= Social learning/social cognitive theory =
According to the social learning theory, which is also known as the social
cognitive theory, behavioural change is determined by environmental, personal,
and behavioural elements. Each factor affects each of the others. For example,
in congruence with the principles of self-efficacy, an individual's thoughts
affect their behaviour and an individual's characteristics elicit
certain responses from the social environment. Likewise, an individual's
environment affects the development of personal characteristics as well as the
person's behavior, and an individual's behaviour may change their environment
as well as the way the individual thinks or feels. Social learning theory focuses
on the reciprocal interactions between these factors, which are hypothesised to
determine behavioral change. = Theory of reasoned action =
The theory of reasoned action assumes that individuals consider a behaviour's
consequences before performing the particular behaviour. As a result,
intention is an important factor in determining behaviour and behavioural
change. According to Icek Ajzen,intentions develop from an
individual's perception of a behaviour as positive or negative together with
the individual's impression of the way their society perceives the same
behaviour. Thus, personal attitude and social pressure shape intention, which
is essential to performance of a behaviour and consequently behavioural
change. = Theory of planned behaviour =
In 1985, Ajzen expanded upon the theory of reasoned action, formulating the
Theory of Planned Behaviour, which also emphasises the role of intention in
behaviour performance but is intended to cover cases in which a person is not in
control of all factors affecting the actual performance of a behaviour. As a
result, the new theory states that the incidence of actual behaviour
performance is proportional to the amount of control an individual
possesses over the behaviour and the strength of the individual's intention
in performing the behaviour. In his article, Further hypothesises that
self-efficacy is important in determining the strength of the
individual's intention to perform a behaviour. In 2010, Fishbein and Ajzen
introduced the Reasoned action approach, the successor of the Theory of Planned
Behaviour. = Transtheoretical/stages of change
model = According to the transtheoretical model,
which is also known as the Stages of Change Model, behavioural change is a
five-step process. The five stages, between which individuals may oscillate
before achieving complete change, are precontemplation, contemplation,
preparation for action, action, and maintenance.At the precontemplation
stage, an individual may or may not be aware of a problem but has no thought of
changing their behavior. From precontemplation to contemplation, the
individual begins thinking about changing a certain behavior. During
preparation, the individual begins his plans for change, and during the action
stage the individual begins to exhibit new behavior consistently. An individual
finally enters the maintenance stage once they exhibit the new behavior
consistently for over six months. A problem faced with the Stages of Change
Model is that it is very easy for a person to enter the maintenance stage
and then fall back into earlier stages. Factors that contribute to this decline
include external factors such as weather or seasonal changes, and/or personal
issues a person is dealing with. = Health action process approach =
The health action process approach is designed as a sequence of two continuous
self-regulatory processes, a goal-setting phase and a goal-pursuit
phase. The second phase is subdivided into a pre-action phase and an action
phase. Motivational self-efficacy, outcome-expectancies and risk
perceptions are assumed to be predictors of intentions. This is the motivational
phase of the model. The predictive effect of motivational self-efficacy on
behaviour is assumed to be mediated by recovery self-efficacy, and the effects
of intentions are assumed to be mediated by planning. The latter processes refer
to the volitional phase of the model. = Education =
Behavioural change theories can be used as guides in developing effective
teaching methods. Since the goal of much education is behavioural change, the
understanding of behaviour afforded by behavioural change theories provides
insight into the formulation of effective teaching methods that tap into
the mechanisms of behavioural change. In an era when education programs strive to
reach large audiences with varying socioeconomic statuses, the designers of
such programs increasingly strive to understand the reasons behind
behavioural change in order to understand universal characteristics
that may be crucial to program design. In fact, some of the theories, like the
Social Learning Theory and Theory of Planned Behaviour, were developed as
attempts to improve health education. Because these theories address the
interaction between individuals and their environments, they can provide
insight into the effectiveness of education programs given a specific set
of predetermined conditions, like the social context in which a program will
be initiated.Although health education is still the area in which behavioural
change theories are most often applied, theories like the Stages of Change Model
have begun to be applied in other areas like employee training and developing
systems of higher education. = Criminology =
Empirical studies in criminology support behavioural change theories. At the same
time, the general theories of behavioural change suggest possible
explanations to criminal behaviour and methods of correcting deviant
behaviour.Since deviant behaviour correction entails behavioural change,
understanding of behavioural change can facilitate the adoption of effective
correctional methods in policy-making. For example, the understanding that
deviant behaviour like stealing may be learned behaviour resulting from
reinforcers like hunger satisfaction that are unrelated to criminal behaviour
can aid the development of social controls that address this underlying
issue rather than merely the resultant behaviour.
Specific theories that have been applied to criminology include the Social
Learning and Differential Association Theories. Social Learning Theory's
element of interaction between an individual and their environment
explains the development of deviant behaviour as a function of an
individual's exposure to a certain behaviour and their acquaintances, who
can reinforce either socially acceptable or socially unacceptable
behaviour.Differential Association Theory, originally formulated by Edwin
Sutherland, is a popular, related theoretical explanation of criminal
behaviour that applies learning theory concepts and asserts that deviant
behaviour is learned behaviour. = Energy =
Recent years have seen an increased interest in energy consumption reduction
based on behavioural change, be it for reasons of climate change mitigation or
energy security. The application of behavioural change theories in the field
of energy consumption behaviour yields interesting insights. For example, it
supports criticism of a too narrow focus on individual behaviour and a broadening
to include social interaction, lifestyles, norms and values as well as
technologies and policies—all enabling or constraining behavioural change.
Objections Behavioural change theories are not
universally accepted. Criticisms include the theories' emphases on individual
behaviour and a general disregard for the influence of environmental factors
on behaviour. In addition, as some theories were formulated as guides to
understanding behaviour while others were designed as frameworks for
behavioural interventions, the theories' purposes are not consistent. Such
criticism illuminates the strengths and weaknesses of the theories, showing that
there is room for further research into behavioural change theories.