THE 8 STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT The theory of psychosocial development
created by Erik Erikson, a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst,
is one of the best-known personality theories. The theory differs from many
others in that it addresses development across the entire lifespan, from birth through death.
At each stage, the individual deals with a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development. When the conflict is resolved successfully, the person is able to develop
the psychosocial quality associated with that particular stage of development.
However, If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts,
they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self.
Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions.
Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life.
If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to
as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a
sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development. Let’s see now what these 8 development stages are:
Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust Trust versus mistrust is the earliest psychosocial
stage that occurs during the first year or so of a child's life. During this critical phase of
development, an infant is utterly dependent upon his or her caregivers. When parents or caregivers
respond to a child's needs in a consistent and caring manner, the child then learns
to trust the world and the people around him. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and
love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life.
If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust
in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief
that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust
or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance
between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson
described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.
Subsequent work by researchers including John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth demonstrated
the importance of trust in forming healthy attachments during childhood and adulthood.
Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt The second psychosocial stage involves the
conflict between autonomy and shame or doubt. As the child enters the toddler years,
gaining a greater sense of personal control becomes increasingly important.
At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer.
By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers
can help children develop a sense of autonomy. Tasks such as learning how to use the toilet,
selecting foods, and choosing toys are ways that children gain a greater sense of independence.
The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in
helping children develop this sense of autonomy. Children who struggle and who are shamed for their
accidents may be left without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial
development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will,
which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.
Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt The third psychosocial stage is
known as initiative versus guilt and occurs between the ages of about three and five.
This stage is centered on developing a sense of self-initiative. Children who are allowed and
encouraged to engage in self-directed play emerge with a sense of strong initiative, while those
who are discouraged may begin to feel a sense of guilt over their self-initiated activities.
The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that
children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this
stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience
disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. When an ideal balance of individual initiative
and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.
Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority During middle childhood between the ages of about
six and eleven, children enter the psychosocial stage known as industry versus inferiority.
As children engage in social interaction with friends and academic activities at school,
they begin to develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their work and abilities.
Children who are praised and encouraged develop a sense of competence. Those who are discouraged
are left with a sense of inferiority. Successfully finding a balance at this
stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as competence,
in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.
Stage 5: Identity Versus Confusion In the fifth psychosocial stage is
centered on identity versus role confusion.
At this point in development, the formation of a personal identity becomes critical.
During adolescence, teens explore different behaviors, roles, and identities.
Erikson believed that this stage was particularly crucial and that forging a strong identity serves
as a basis for finding future direction in life. Those who find a sense of identity feel secure,
independent, and ready to face the future, while those who remain confused may feel lost, insecure,
and unsure of their place in the world. But, What Is “Identity”?
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals,
and values that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads
to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.
While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important,
he placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity.
Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes
a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we
acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences,
we also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity.
Why is Identity important? Our personal identity gives each
of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures through our lives.
Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others,
and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.
Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation The sixth psychosocial stage is centered
on intimacy versus isolation is focuses on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.
Dating, marriage, family, and friendships are important during the intimacy versus
isolation stage, which lasts from approximately age 19 to 40.
By successfully forming loving relationships with other people, individuals are able to experience
love and enjoy intimacy. Those who fail to form lasting relationships may feel isolated and alone.
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong
sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have
demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are
more likely to struggler with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love.
It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
Stage 7: Generativity Versus Stagnation Once adults enter the generativity versus
stagnation stage that occurs during middle adulthood, the psychosocial conflict becomes
centered on the need to create or nurture things that will outlast the individual.
Raising a family, working, and contributing to the community are all ways that people develop
a sense of purpose. Those who fail to find ways to contribute may feel disconnected and useless.
Stage 8: Integrity Versus Despair The final psychosocial stage is known
as integrity versus despair and it begins around the age of 65 and lasts until death. During this
period of time, the individual looks back on his or her life. The major question during
this stage is, "Did I live a meaningful life?" Those who have will feel a sense of peace, wisdom,
and fulfillment, even when facing death. For those who look back on life with bitterness and regret,
feelings of despair may result. Those who are unsuccessful during this stage
will feel that their life has been wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will be left
with feelings of bitterness and despair. Criticisms of Psychosocial Theory
Erikson's theory also has its limitations and attracts valid criticisms.
What kinds of experiences are necessary to successfully complete each stage?
How does a person move from one stage to the next? One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that
the exact mechanisms for resolving conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not
well described or developed. The theory fails to detail exactly what type of experiences are
necessary at each stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage.
One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad framework from which to
view development throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social nature
of human beings and the important influence that social relationships have on development.
Researchers have found evidence supporting Erikson's ideas about identity
and have further identified different sub-stages of identity formation.
Some research also suggests that people who form strong personal identities during adolescence are
better capable of forming intimate relationships during early adulthood. Other research suggests,
however, that identity formation and development continues well into adulthood.
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