Pineapple The pineapple is a tropical plant with edible
multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries, and the most economically significant plant
in the Bromeliaceae family. Pineapples may be cultivated from a crown cutting of the
fruit, possibly flowering in 20–24 months and fruiting in the following six months.
Pineapple does not ripen significantly post-harvest. Pineapples are consumed fresh, cooked, juiced,
and preserved, and are found in a wide array of cuisines. In addition to consumption, in
the Philippines the pineapple's leaves are used to produce the textile fiber piña- employed
as a component of wall paper and furnishings, amongst other uses.
Etymology The word "pineapple" in English was first
recorded in 1398, when it was originally used to describe the reproductive organs of conifer
trees (now termed pine cones). The term "pine cone" for the reproductive organ of conifer
trees was first recorded in 1694. When European explorers discovered this tropical fruit in
the Americas, they called them "pineapples" (first so referenced in 1664 due to resemblance
to what is now known as the pine cone). In the scientific binomial Ananas comosus,
ananas, the original name of the fruit, comes from the Tupi word nanas, meaning "excellent
fruit", as recorded by André Thevet in 1555, and comosus, "tufted", refers to the stem
of the fruit. Other members of the Ananas genus are often called "pine", as well, in
other languages. In Spanish, pineapples are called piña ("pine cone"), or ananá (ananás)
(example, the piña colada drink). Botany
The pineapple is a herbaceous perennial which grows to 1.0 to 1.5 meters (3.3 to 4.9 ft)
tall, although sometimes it can be taller. In appearance, the plant itself has a short,
stocky stem with tough, waxy leaves. When creating its fruit, it usually produces up
to 200 flowers, although some large-fruited cultivars can exceed this. Once it flowers,
the individual fruits of the flowers join together to create what is commonly referred
to as a pineapple. After the first fruit is produced, side shoots (called 'suckers' by
commercial growers) are produced in the leaf axils of the main stem. These may be removed
for propagation, or left to produce additional fruits on the original plant. Commercially,
suckers that appear around the base are cultivated. It has 30 or more long, narrow, fleshy, trough-shaped
leaves with sharp spines along the margins that are 30 to 100 centimeters (1.0 to 3.3 ft)
long, surrounding a thick stem. In the first year of growth, the axis lengthens and thickens,
bearing numerous leaves in close spirals. After 12 to 20 months, the stem grows into
a spike-like inflorescence up to 15 cm (6 in) long with over 100 spirally arranged, trimerous
flowers, each subtended by a bract. Flower colors vary, depending on variety, from lavender,
through light purple to red. The ovaries develop into berries which coalesce
into a large, compact, multiple accessory fruit. The fruit of a pineapple is arranged
in two interlocking helices, eight in one direction, thirteen in the other, each being
a Fibonacci number. Pineapple carries out CAM photosynthesis,
fixing carbon dioxide at night and storing it as the acid malate and then releasing it
during the day, aiding photosynthesis. Pollination
Pollination is required for seed formation, but the presence of seeds negatively affects
the quality of the fruit. In Hawaii, where pineapple is cultivated on an agricultural
scale, importation of hummingbirds is prohibited for this reason. Certain bat-pollinated wild
pineapples open their flowers only at night. Culinary uses
The flesh and juice of the pineapple are used in cuisines around the world. In many tropical
countries, pineapple is prepared, and sold on roadsides as a snack. It is sold whole,
or in halves with a stick inserted. Whole, cored slices with a cherry in the middle are
a common garnish on hams in the West. Chunks of pineapple are used in desserts such as
fruit salad, as well as in some savory dishes, including pizza toppings and a grilled ring
on a hamburger. Crushed pineapple is used in yogurt, jam, sweets, and ice cream. The
juice of the pineapple is served as a beverage, and is also as a main ingredient in such cocktails
as the Piña colada. Nutrition
Raw pineapple is an excellent source of manganese (76% Daily Value (DV) in a one US cup serving)
and vitamin C (131% DV per cup serving). Mainly from its stem, pineapple contains a proteolytic
enzyme, bromelain, which breaks down protein. If having sufficient bromelain content, raw
pineapple juice may be used as a meat marinade and tenderizer. Pineapple enzymes can interfere
with the preparation of some foods, such as jelly or other gelatin-based desserts, but
would be destroyed during cooking and canning. The quantity of bromelain in the fruit is
probably not significant, being mostly in the inedible stalk. Furthermore, an ingested
enzyme like bromelain is unlikely to survive intact the proteolytic processes of digestion.
History The plant is indigenous to South America and
is said to originate from the area between Southern Brazil and Paraguay; however, it
is important to note that little is known about the origin of the domesticated pineapple
(Pickersgill, 1976). M.S. Bertoni (1919) considered the Paraná–Paraguay River drainages to
be the place of origin of A. comosus. The natives of southern Brazil and Paraguay spread
the pineapple throughout South America, and it eventually reached the Caribbean, Central
America and Mexico, where it was cultivated by the Mayas and the Aztecs. Columbus encountered
the pineapple in 1493 on the Leeward island of Guadeloupe. He called it piña de Indes,
meaning "pine of the Indians," and brought it back with him to Europe thus making the
pineapple the first bromeliad to leave the New World. The Spanish introduced it into
the Philippines, Hawaii (introduced in the early 19th century, first commercial plantation
1886), Zimbabwe and Guam. Many say the fruit was first introduced in Hawaii when a Spanish
ship brought it there in the 1500s. The fruit was cultivated successfully in European hothouses,
and pineapple pits, beginning in 1720. John Kidwell is credited with the introduction
of the pineapple industry in Hawaii. Large-scale pineapple cultivation by U.S. companies began
in the early 1900s on Hawaii. Among the most famous and influential pineapple industrialists
was James Dole who moved to Hawaii in 1899 and started a pineapple plantation in 1900.
The companies Dole and Del Monte began growing pineapple on the island of Oahu in 1901 and
1917, respectively. Dole's pineapple company began with the acquisition of 60 acres (24 ha)
of land in 1901, and, as previously mentioned, has grown into a major company today. Maui
Pineapple Company began pineapple cultivation on the island of Maui in 1909. In 2006, Del
Monte announced its withdrawal from pineapple cultivation in Hawaii, leaving only Dole and
Maui Pineapple Company in Hawaii as the USA's largest growers of pineapples. Maui Pineapple
Company markets its Maui Gold brand of pineapple and Dole markets its Hawaii Gold brand of
pineapple. In the USA in 1986, the Pineapple Research
Institute was dissolved and its assets were divided between Del Monte and Maui Land and
Pineapple. Del Monte took variety 73–114, which it dubbed MD-2, to its plantations in
Costa Rica, found it to be well-suited to growing there, and launched it publicly in
1996. (Del Monte also began marketing 73–50, dubbed CO-2, as Del Monte Gold). In 1997,
Del Monte began marketing its Gold Extra Sweet pineapple, known internally as MD-2. MD-2
is a hybrid that originated in the breeding program of the now-defunct Pineapple Research
Institute in Hawaii, which conducted research on behalf of Del Monte, Maui Land & Pineapple
Company, and Dole. Cultivation
Southeast Asia dominates world production: in 2009, the Philippines produced 2.198 million
tons and Thailand 1.894 million tons, while in the Americas, Brazil produced 1.471 million
tons. Total world production in 2009 was 14.220 million tons. The primary exporters of fresh
pineapples in 2001 were Costa Rica, 322,000 tons; Côte d'Ivoire, 188,000 tons; and the
Philippines, 135,000 tons. Since 2000, the most common fresh pineapple fruit found in
U.S. and European supermarkets is a low-acid hybrid that was developed in Hawaii in the
early 1970s. In commercial farming, flowering can be induced
artificially, and the early harvesting of the main fruit can encourage the development
of a second crop of smaller fruits. Once removed during cleaning, the top of the pineapple
can be planted in soil and a new plant will grow. Slips and suckers are planted commercially.
Ethical and environmental concerns Three-quarters of pineapples sold in Europe
are grown in Costa Rica, where pineapple production is highly industrialised. Growers typically
use 20 kg of pesticides per hectare in each growing cycle, a process that may affect soil
quality and biodiversity. The pesticides – organophosphates, organochlorines and hormone disruptors – have
the potential to affect workers' health and can contaminate local drinking water supplies.
Many of these chemicals have potential to be carcinogens, and may be related to birth
defects. Because of commercial pressures, many pineapple
workers – 60% of whom are Nicaraguan – in Costa Rica are paid low wages. European supermarkets'
price-reduction policies have lowered growers' incomes. One major pineapple producer contests
these claims. Cultivars
There are many cultivars. The leaves of the commonly grown 'Smooth Cayenne' are smooth
and it is the most commonly grown worldwide. Many cultivars have become distributed from
its origins in Paraguay and the southern part of Brazil, and later improved stocks were
introduced into the Americas, the Azores, Africa, India, Malaysia and Australia. Varieties
include: 'Hilo': A compact 1–1.5 kg (2–3 lb)
Hawaiian variant of 'Smooth Cayenne', the fruit is more cylindrical and produces many
suckers, but no slips. 'Kona Sugarloaf': 2.5–3 kg (5–6 lb),
white flesh with no woodiness in the center, cylindrical in shape, it has a high sugar
content but no acid, an unusually sweet fruit. 'Natal Queen': 1–1.5 kg (2–3 lb), golden
yellow flesh, crisp texture and delicate mild flavor, well-adapted to fresh consumption,
keeps well after ripening, spiny leaves, grown in Australia, Malaysia, and South Africa
'Pernambuco' ('Eleuthera'): 1–2 kg (2–4 lb) with pale yellow to white flesh, sweet, melting
and excellent for eating fresh, poorly adapted for shipping, spiny leaves, grown in Latin
America 'Red Spanish': 1–2 kg (2–4 lb), pale
yellow flesh with pleasant aroma, squarish in shape, well-adapted for shipping as fresh
fruit to distant markets, spiny leaves, grown in Latin America
'Smooth Cayenne': 2.5–3 kg (5–6 lb), pale yellow to yellow flesh, cylindrical in
shape, high sugar and acid content, well-adapted to canning and processing, leaves without
spines, this is the variety from Hawaii, and the most easily obtainable in US grocery stores.
Both 73–114 and 73-50 are of this cultivar. Some Ananas species are grown as ornamentals
for color, novel fruit size and other esthetic qualities.
Traditional medicine and preliminary research Both the root and fruit may be eaten or applied
topically as an anti-inflammatory or as a proteolytic agent. In some practices, it may
be used to induce abortion or menstruation or as an antihelminthic agent.
Bromelain purified from pineapple stem or fresh juice, then provided in the diet over
six months, decreased the severity of colonic inflammation in mice with experimental colitis.
Bromelain from pineapple has some potential against cancer mechanisms, as laboratory research
showed that it causes autophagy in mammary carcinoma cells, stimulating turnover of MCF-7
cells through apoptosis. Pests and diseases
Pineapples are subject to a variety of diseases, the most serious of which is wilt disease
vectored by mealybugs typically found on the surface of pineapples, but possibly in the
closed blossom cups. Other diseases include pink disease, bacterial heart rot, anthracnose,
fungal heart rot, root rot, black rot, butt rot, fruitlet core rot, and yellow spot virus.
Pink disease is characterized by the fruit developing a brownish to black discoloration
when heated during the canning process. The causal agents of pink disease are the bacteria
Acetobacter aceti, Gluconobacter oxydans, and Pantoea citrea.
Some pests that commonly affect pineapple plants are scales, thrips, mites, mealybugs,
ants, and symphylids. Storage and transport
Some buyers prefer green fruit, others ripened or off-green. A plant growth regulator, Ethephon,
is typically sprayed onto the fruit one week before harvest, developing ethylene, which
turns the fruit golden yellow. After cleaning and slicing, a pineapple is typically canned
in sugar syrup with added preservative. A pineapple will never become any riper than
it was when harvested, though a fully ripe pineapple can bruise and rot quickly.
The fruit itself is quite perishable and storage of it should be taken seriously. If it is
stored at room temperature, it should be used within two days; however, if it is refrigerated,
the time span is extended to five to seven days.
Usage in culture In the Caribbean, Europe and North America,
the pineapple became associated with the return of ships from extended voyages, and an emblem
of welcome and hospitality that made its way into contemporary art.
In the television show Psych, the writers have included a pineapple in every episode
as a running joke, and there's a website dedicated to compiling a list of every pineapple.
In the American cartoon SpongeBob SquarePants, SpongeBob's home is a pineapple under the
sea.