For
centuries, the Caucasus has been known as the crossroads of Europe and Asia.
Situated between the steppes of Russia, the mountains of Anatolia, the forests of the Levant
and the expanses of Iran, Caucasian history has always been a brilliant drama featuring interplay
between countless cultures and religions. Among the most important historical polities in this
region was the Kingdom of Armenia, which existed between 321 BCE - 428 CE, and was
a keystone in the eternal struggle between the great civilizations of Rome and Persia. What was
the Kingdom of Armenia? Who were its inhabitants? And what did its culture look like? Welcome to
our video on the Kingdom of Armenia, an ancient realm at the crossroads of the east and the west.
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Before going into the origins of the Armenian Kingdom itself, we must first understand the
broader geographical context of the ancient Caucasus in the centuries before Christ. This
presents a historiographical challenge, as most of our sources on this region during
antiquity come from Graeco-Roman authors, and while native Armenian writing does exist, most
of it dates centuries later, after the nations’ Christianization. As such, we have many gaps in
our record. With all that said, let us cover what we know, beginning with geographical terminology:
Greater and Lesser Armenia are old names for the regions where Armenian speakers resided
in antiquity, based on whether they were on the southeast or northwest of the Euphrates River.
These lands were not just populated by Armenians, but also Aramaic, Iranian,
Galatian, Semitic, and Hellenic ethnic groups, depending on the period one is discussing.
By that token, the region played host to a wide variety of faiths, as Semitic, Hellenic and
Iranian religions all co-existed within the same sphere. In fact, Greco-Roman writings imply that
Armenian polytheism, with deities like Aramazd, Anahit and Vahagn, were heavily influenced by
deistic figures from Persian religions, such as Ahura Mazda, Anahita and Verethragna.
Throughout all of history, the regions of Greater and Lesser Armenia have come under
the role of countless Kingdoms and Empires. However, as previously stated, the Armenian
Kingdom we will be exploring today will be the one that existed between early and late antiquity.
Throughout its history, this Kingdom was ruled by three main dynasties: the Orontids,
Artaxiads, and Arsacids. The first dynasty, the Orontids, ruled when Armenia was a Satrapy of the
Achaemenid Persians. This is an important fact, as it established the religious and
diplomatic connections between Persia and Armenia which we will see down the line.
Indeed, the history of the Kingdom of Armenia begins with the Armenian peoples as vassals of the
great Persian King of Kings. By the 4th century BC, the ruling satraps of Armenia, the Orontid
dynasty, had been in power for centuries: forging cultural, diplomatic and tributary links with
their Achaemenid overlords. However, this status quo was shaken up when a certain Alexander wiped
the Persian Empire off the face of the earth. Upon absorbing Armenia into his Macedonian Empire,
Alexander appointed Mihran, a garrison commander at Sardis, and scion of the Orontid Dynasty,
to the rulership of the satrapy. We do not know what happened after this appointment, but after
Alexander died, his generals began fighting amongst themselves for pieces of his erstwhile
Empire, and Armenia came under the control of the general Seleukos and his emergent Seleukid Empire.
Seleukos I set up a man from the Orontid Dynasty called Mithrenes to rule Armenia as a satrap,
and thus, the Orontids stayed under Seleukid influence for the next century. During this time,
some rulers, such as Orontes III, tried to assert their independence,
resulting in the rise of two Armenian states, Greater and Lesser Armenia.
However, the Seleukids eventually struck back, and by the reign of
Orontes IV in 200 BCE, retook the Kingdom. Nevertheless, in the ensuing decade, the Armenians
were able to reassert independence by playing the great Empires of Europe and Asia off one another,
something which would become a running theme throughout their history. In 190 BCE, the Roman
Empire defeated the Seleukids at the battle of Magnesia. In the aftermath, a satrap called
Artaxias, from whom the Artaxiad dynasty is named after, rebelled against his Macedonian overlords.
Alongside another satrap called Zariadres who presided over a smaller Armenian state called
Sophene, they overthrew the Seleucids and became kings of their respective kingdoms. To establish
the legitimacy of their rule, both kings claimed connection to the previous Orontid Dynasty.
Despite now being an independent polity, the culture of the Kingdom of Armenia was still
largely defined by that of its former Imperial overlords. The most influential of these were the
Persians, whose customs and rituals loomed large in Armenian society, even when the Romans were
dominant in the region. Many Armenian kings had Persian-sounding names and had Persian
customs of marriage; such as polygyny. The famous Armenian king Tigranes the Yougner for instance,
was married to a daughter of the Parthian King of Kings, and even claimed that title for himself.
Iranian and particularly Zoroastrian culture was paramount in Armenia during this period.
For instance, some coins have Achaemenid fire motifs, while local deities appear with
aesthetic representations of Iranian deities and Amesha Spentas, such as Verethragna and Mithra.
Even after the Kingdom embraced Christianity in the 3rd Century CE,
this Persianate imagery endured in Christian art, for example, influencing scenes of the Nativity.
A lot of this Persian continuity can be found in the strong temple aristocracy present in Armenia
in this period, as the Kingdom was home to a hereditary class of priests that held considerable
power. The Armenian pre-Christian religion was eclectic in borrowing from its neighbours,
but maintained a solid structure despite political upheavals. Deities like Aramazd the head god,
Tir who was the god of light, Tsovinar the rain goddess and Anahit goddess of beauty,
were prominent in the empire with large decorated temples dedicated to them. There is some debate
in academic communities as to whether Armenian religion was separate from Persian Zoroastrianism,
or if it was a Zoroastrian-derived religion. What we can say with certainty is that the gods of
the Armenians had Persian, as well as Semitic and Hellenic analogues. For example, Nane; a daughter
of chief god Aramazd and mother goddess, was linked to Nanaya, a Babylonian fertility goddess.
However, Greek art also was present in depictions of deities like Anahit and Tir, who were depicted
like Aphrodite and Apollo respectively in temple statues. Artaxias I himself built temples to
Apollo-Tir and Artemis-Anahit in his capital of Artaxata, highlighting the diverse influence of
the Greek and Iranian religious institutions that were mirrored in Armenia in an effort to create a
cohesive kingdom. Although the Armenian Kingdom later adopted the Christian faith, anecdotally
being the first Kingdom to do so in an official and state capacity, many of the unique features of
Armenian Christianity may have connections to the country’s pagan past. For example, the Christian
festival of Vardavar, now done for the Feast of Transfiguration, was once done in honour of the
goddess Astghik, connected to the Greek Aphrodite. No discussion of the Artaxiad Dynasty would
be complete without discussing its most famous sovereign, Tigranes II, or Tigranes the Great.
Similar to a certain Macedonian named Philip, Tigranes was the son of the royal dynasty,
but grew up as a hostage in the Parthian court. Educated in the Persian ways of warfare and
etiquette, he was appointed King of Armenia by Mithridates II of Parthia. Tigranes reformed the
Armenian army with a heavy emphasis on archers and horse soldiers, and proceeded to become a great
military general. He involved himself carefully in the wars of the Empires around him, such as
when he indirectly supported another Mithridates- Mithridates VI of Pontus, the poison drinking guy,
during his Kingdoms’ wars with Rome. He also managed to overtake the Kingdom of Sophene,
before waging wars against the Parthians and Seleukids. Both Empires were under geopolitical
strain at the time, and thus, the shrewd Tigranes managed to enlarge his empire to reach the waters
of the Mediterranean and as far south as Judea. Many Graeco-Roman sources call him the Great,
and admit that his achievements were incredibly impressive. His legendary capital of Tigranocerta
was a cosmopolitan metropolis, with both Greek and Iranian architecture abounding.
Tigranes himself took the title of ‘Philhellene’ or ‘Friend of the Greeks’.
However, while Tigranes grew powerful at the expense of the Empires of the East,
in the West, the Eagle Standard of Italia was growing ever stronger. Eventually,
Pompey the Great intruded upon Armenia, largely due to the aid it had provided to Romes’ enemy,
the aforementioned Pontic Kingdom of Mithridates. A long and protracted war took place in Armenia,
with major losses for both sides. Having the advantage, the Armenians exhausted the Romans,
causing mutinies amongst the legions. It was up to Pompey the Great to control Armenian power,
as well as a rebellious son of Tigranes, called Tigranes the Younger. Tigranes’s son had the
support of the Parthians, however they could not invest in a long-term siege of the country.
Pompey’s invasion was incredibly powerful and eventually Tigranes, by now an old man of 75,
relented. He became an ally of Rome and his realm, although still nominally independent,
became a client state of the Empire. Tigranes died in 55 BCE.
Armenia eventually came under full Roman control under Tiberius, who sent Germanicus,
of ‘Bring Me Back My Legions’ fame, to Armenia to solidify Roman control and to
help with the ascension of one Zeno Artaxias to the throne. The Principate had a vested interest
in Armenia due to its strategic location, and previous involvement in Roman affairs.
Anecdotally, centuries earlier during the Punic Wars, Hannibal is said to have stayed in Armenia
as an exile after his defeat at Romes’ hand. To control the lucrative trade routes between Europe
and Asia which ran through Armenia, the Romans ensured that they had legions stationed in the
country, and sponsored the development of roads to enhance commerce in the Kingdom. This was typical
of Roman imperial strategy in the Near East. Rome, however, would not be the only Empire that vied
for influence over Armenia in the 1st century AD. Their archrivals, the Parthians, also maintained a
presence in the area, and eventually, the Arsacid Dynasty of Parthian origin came to power with the
first ruler being a Zoroastrian magus called Tiridates I. Over the next few centuries,
Armenia would swing like a pendulum, back and forth between Roman and Parthian influence.
With the rise of the neo-Persian Sasanians Empire, and the spread of Christianity in the Roman
Empire, Armenia began to see changes that would define the region and the people for millennia
to come. As previously discussed, the Armenian religious apparatus was strongly influenced by
Iranian ideals and religion, and the rise of the Sasanians strengthened this influence in
the short-term. While many Armenian Kings had clung to Roman patronage as a means to combat
the rising Sasanian influence in their realm, this was evidently in vain, as the Sasanian Shahanshah
Shapur I at one point managed to install Hurmazd, his own son, onto the Armenian throne.
While this was happening, a small religion from Judea called Christianity
was on the rise. Initially, the nobles of Armenia were hostile to the religion,
and persecuted it much like Roman emperors like Diocletian did. However, in 301 CE,
due to the efforts of St. Gregory the Illuminator, King Tiridates III converted to Christianity.
Gregory also helped craft the Armenian alphabet that is still used to this day, basing it on
the Greek alphabet. This marked the beginning of a great tradition of Armenian scholarship.
Meanwhile, the temple aristocrats of the old Zoroastrian and Polytheistic Armenian faiths
were co-opted into the new Christian arrangement, with many of their social privileges retained.
Much as it did when it was polytheistic, Christian Armenia absorbed many religious
influences from neighbouring regions, particularly from the Christian rites of practiced in Syria.
In contrast, Greek Christianity, centred in the increasingly important Eastern Roman capital of
Constantinople, was always held relatively distant from Armenian affairs. During important ecumenical
conclaves in the Roman Empire, such as the 451 AD Council of Chalcedon, Armenian bishops were
not present or active in the discussion. As such, Armenian Christianity ended up
with significant theological divergences with the Nicene Christianity of Rome, especially in regards
to the nature of Christ. Moreover, Zoroastrian influence still remained in the region.
By the time the Armenian Kingdom adopted Christianity, it had already entered into
the twilight years of its existence. In the 4th century AD, the Sassanians constantly
raided the Kingdom, and by the 4th Century. The last ruler of an independent Armenia was a queen
named Pharantzem. After her husband, the King Arsakes II was taken hostage by the Sassanians,
the Persian Empire proceeded to launch a massive invasion of the kingdom of Armenia.
Retreating with the Armenian treasury and many soldiers and civilians into the fortress of
Artogessa, Pharantzem withstood a brutal siege by Shapur II for two years before
the citadel finally fell, and with it, her Kingdom. After the victory of the Sasanians,
Pharantzem was taken prisoner and tortured to death. In 387 CE, Armenia was partitioned between
Eastern Rome and Sasanian Persia, and the last local nobles in Persia were disposed of in 428 CE.
While the Kingdom of Armenia may appear secondary to many of the major powers of the time,
we can see that it often was a powerful broker or an independent force in antique geopolitics.
Later Armenian historiography would harken back to this period as a Golden Age of
independence and strength. Its original pantheon of unique polytheistic faiths, and its eventual
conversion to a unique form of Christianity allowed for this independence to continue.
Christianity itself in Armenia was the catalyst of an ethnogenesis, bringing a form of continuity
and community in the people of the Kingdom even after its end. Most important of all,
the Kingdom often showed a syncretism that followed the patterns of the time, combining
Semitic, Greek, Iranian and local Caucasian influences to form a dynamic cultural milieu.
While many other Kingdoms and even empires would be run by Armenian dynasties, it was the Armenian
Kingdom of Antiquity which defined the history of the region. In a crossroads such as the Caucasus,
Greater and Lesser Armenia demonstrate the contradiction of existence between empires;
a society both syncretistic and balancing between stronger foes. More videos on the history of the
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