The Age of Exploration was one of the turning points in human history. During the early
phase of this age, Portugal and Spain were the pre-eminent powers. The rivalry between
them over the New World’s wealth threatened a devastating war within Christendom at the
worst possible moment. The Catholic church would intervene to prevent this from occurring,
but its decision would leave a legacy that we still live with today. Welcome to our video
on how the Pope split the world between Spain and Portugal.
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It is 1453 - the year which many scholars dub as the end of the middle ages. Constantinople,
the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire for over a thousand years, has finally fallen
to the Ottoman Empire. With that, centuries-old patterns of travel and trade in the Mediterranean
rapidly changed. One of the main changes as long-standing trade routes closed was the
nosedive of Genoa’s influence and power. Seeking a new livelihood, thousands of Genoese
mariners, cartographers and merchants emigrated abroad.
Many ended up in Portugal, and by 1481 there were so many living in Lisbon that Portuguese
king Joao II was advised to expel them by his councilors. However, Joao realised that
the expertise in mercantile activity and sailing the Genoese possessed was far too valuable.
Among them was a certain Christopher Columbus, who had washed ashore in the Algarve during
1476 after the merchant fleet he was sailing with was sunk. Columbus made his way to Lisbon,
joining his younger brother who had established a small mapmaking business. Cartography was
a thriving business at the time, fuelled by the economic boom that Portuguese royals had
created by initiating the exploration and exploitation of West Africa’s resources.
Sailors from all around Europe congregated in Lisbon, trading spices, slaves, gold, wool,
sugar, and other commodities. Continuing his maritime life as a merchant
and sugar broker in sailing season, and concentrating on studying during winter, Columbus eventually
devised a plan to sail west in order to find India. After failing to convince the Joao
II, who was increasingly concentrating on a southern route around the newly named ‘Cape
of Good Hope’, Columbus went to Spain. There, he eventually secured the patronage of the
so-called Catholic Majesties: Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille, who had recently
conquered the Moorish kingdom at Granada. The fact that Portugal had recently succeeded
in establishing a route into the Indian Ocean possibly motivated Spanish desire for a route
to the exotic, profitable spice lands which was not dominated by their European rival.
If such a venture to the west failed, only relatively minor funds would be wasted, but
if it succeeded, the Spanish would be wealthy beyond imagining. Was that not a risk worth
taking? On September 6th, 1492, Columbus set off on his journey from the Canary Islands
with his crew and three ships - the Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria - on a voyage that would
change the world forever. After a months-long journey involving many
trials and tribulations, land was finally spotted on October 12th. This first landmass
was probably one of the Bahamas and was named San Salvador by Columbus. After meeting the
locals and viewing many exotic things, Columbus began exploring further. October 28th saw
the flotilla reach the island of Cuba and, on January 18th, it set off for home after
trade with the natives and searches for gold. After a perilous return voyage during which
his ship was wracked by storms, and after being imprisoned by the Portuguese on the
Azores, Columbus’ battered ships docked at Lisbon for repairs - he was apparently
unable to get to Spain right away. However, it is also speculated that Columbus purposely
came to Lisbon in order to brag of his successful voyage to King Joao II. Given the Portuguese
monarch’s reputation for brutality, it seems like a bad idea on Columbus’ part. Nevertheless,
upon docking at Lisbon aside a giant Portuguese warship, Columbus sent word to Joao of his
arrival from the ‘Indies’ and entertained the locals with exotic prisoners and the novelty
this represented. In short order, news of the voyage would spread
throughout Europe. While his ship was being repaired, Columbus was summoned by the king
and so set off inland. Upon his arrival at the court, he and the king supposedly talked
freely, despite Joao’s agitation at Columbus’ arrogance and his loss of the opportunity.
However, he also informed Columbus that, regretfully, whilst he was greatly pleased with the success
of the voyage, the new discoveries belonged to him and not the Spanish monarchs, because
of earlier treaties and papal donations. This was the first indication of conflict between
the two states over the new world. When the explorer eventually managed to get
back to Spain, he was treated like a hero and received graciously by the monarchs. As
Columbus was telling his riveting tale to the royal court, Joao II publicly announced
that the newly discovered lands belonged to Portugal, and even ordered a mighty armada
to shadow Columbus on his next voyage to occupy this new land for the Portuguese crown. In
return, the Catholic Majesties of Spain maneuvered their fleets closer to Portugal, preparing
for conflict. Realising Portugal’s naval might was superior,
Ferdinand and Isabella sent the matter to be decided by the one person whose authority
was beyond question - the Pope in Rome. At this point in history, the Pope was a man
with the pontifical name of Alexander VI, but he is better known as a certain Rodrigo
Borgia. Borgia was a very capable man who had served as the vice-chancellor for the
previous pope, and whose political ambition was of the highest order. Under the weak leadership
and subsequent death of Innocent VIII from 1484 to 1492, a period of chaos had stricken
Rome, and it was clear that a pope strong enough to restore order was needed. So, on
August 11th, 1492, Borgia took the papal throne. Upon receiving the envoys from Ferdinand and
Isabella, whom Borgia had always viewed favourably, in April 1493, the Pope began taking into
account the precedents set in rulings from previous decades, and issued the first of
three edicts. Its name was inter caetera. This edict was known as a ‘papal bull’,
named after the bulla seal used to authenticate a public decree made by the pope, and was
usually reserved for important topics. These edicts were the sole basis for any European
claim on the new world discovered by the Spanish and Portuguese crowns, and provided a justification
for the conquest of the Americas for centuries to come. Moreover, they were the wedge that
drove European nations into centuries of intermittent warfare over colonial wealth and prestige.
The first inter caetera, dated May 3rd, 1493, granted Spain the exclusive right to travel
in, trade with or colonise the discovered lands, provided they were not already the
possession of a Christian ruler. However, the wording of this bull was quite vague,
much to the dissatisfaction of the Catholic Majesties. So, they again sent ambassadors
to the pope. Instead of begging the Pope for a favour, the Spanish ambassadors chastised
Borgia’s lack of support for his native land, as he was by birth a native of Aragon.
It was suggested that Ferdinand might hesitate in the future to offer military aid to the
papacy. This was crucial, as the French king Charles VIII claimed sovereignty over Naples,
and would have to march through Rome to get there. These political pressures led to two
new papal bulls, which were more favorable to the Catholic Monarchs.
The second edict, known as Eximiae Devotionis, clarified and rephrased the first bull. It
placed emphasis on the rights granted to Portugal in ‘Africa, Guinea, and the Gold Mine, and
elsewhere’ in previous decades, whilst granting Spain those same rights over the lands to
the west which had been discovered by Columbus. Concluding the trio was the second inter caetera.
The vague language of the first was replaced by a precise line of demarcation in the middle
of the Atlantic Ocean, drawn arbitrarily on a north-south boundary around 100 leagues
west of the Azores and Cape Verde. All lands to the east of the demarcation line would
belong to Portugal, while all lands to the west would be under Spanish dominion. No other
ships were legally allowed to sail in these waters without the consent of these empires.
As the word of the bulls spread, the resounding implications of Borgia’s act became clearer
to all. Columbus was quickly arranging his second voyage, while Joao II was furious at
being diplomatically outmaneuvered. However, just as Spain’s monopoly over the vast regions
west of the demarcation line had been secured by papal decree, so too had the pope secured
Portuguese monopoly over Africa and most of Asia. So, Joao’s did not send his fleet
to the west, fearing it would undermine his own gains.
The pope was probably was rushed by the necessity of averting a potentially devastating war
between Christendom’s most powerful nations. Nevertheless, Joao II immediately objected,
not satisfied with any decision that might hinder Portuguese maritime opportunities at
the very moment his naval strength was at its height. Still, Joao did not dare to launch
any fleet into the Spanish-appointed territories, fearing papal wrath and excommunication. Spain
held almost all the cards in negotiations. So, Joao took stock of the situation and settled
down to negotiate, hoping to salvage what he could from the situation.
In the March of 1494, a delegation of Portuguese officials visited Spain and, after months
of debate, eventually reached a historic agreement on June 7th - the Treaty of Tordesillas. It
was mostly just a reaffirmation of the papal bulls’ conditions, but had a few additions.
One of these was a planned joint Spanish-Portuguese expedition to the Cape Verde islands and beyond,
during which ‘boundary towers’ would be established. However, this ambitious endeavor
was put on hold. The most significant deviation from Borgia’s
papal edicts was in the placement of the demarcation line. While the Portuguese king acknowledged
Spain’s legal rights in the territories of the west, he argued that because his ships
constantly navigated these waters, the boundary was simply too narrow. These claims were acceptable
to the Spanish, and both sides eventually agree that the new line would run north to
south 370 leagues, or around 1,200 miles, west of Cape Verde instead of 100 leagues.
Many historians believe that the Portuguese monarch was actually aware of the lands in
Brazil before the treaty, and that his insistence in moving the line was to protect his rights
to that land. However, the official discovery of Brazil actually came six years after the
treaty. After a subsequent series of voyages increased tensions even more, the Treaty of
Tordesillas was confirmed by papal bull Ea Quae in 1506, giving sanction to its terms
and the line of demarcation. In the decade that followed, Spain only profited
slightly from the Tordesillas treaty that it had so fervently pushed the pope to support.
Meanwhile, the apparent loser - Portugal - was still growing rich and powerful as Europe’s
spice supplier, due to the fact that it had consolidated its eastern gains in India and
Indonesia. Not to be outdone, Spain tried again, led by another explorer - Ferdinand
Magellan. He was an experienced sailor and soldier, having already embarked on numerous
expeditions into Africa and India by 1517, and knew about Portugal’s plans and operations.
These deeds aside, he was hated by the new king Manuel I, who had succeeded Joao II in
1495. After Magellan’s request to lead a fleet
to the Indies was refused and he was publicly humiliated by Manuel, the 37-year-old left
Portugal. Continuing the Columbus-inspired tradition of being rejected by Portugal and
embraced by the Spanish, Magellan quickly appeared at the court of Charles I, and the
future Holy Roman Emperor welcomed Magellan to his service. After presenting a plan to
find a route to the Spice Islands through Spain’s half of the world, Magellan had
much better luck than Columbus. Charles I realised that any success in such a bold maritime
venture would check Portugal’s progress, increase his own wealth and consolidate his
rule. So, by spring of 1519 Magellan had signed an agreement with the Spanish monarch, almost
definitely to the great irritation of Portugal. After numerous attempts by Manuel to convince
or coerce Magellan into returning failed, the commander set forth from the Guadalquivir
river’s mouth on September 20th 1519, with five ships. The details of this famous expedition
are best left for a future video of their own, but despite Magellan’s own death in
the Philippines during mid-1521, the remnant of his voyage managed to return to Spain.
This was the first circumnavigation of the globe. Naturally, the mariners had to pass
through Portugal’s ‘half’ of the world to get home, and they had also taken spices
from the Moluccas islands, which the new king of Portugal - Joao III - declared were his
by right. Determined to avoid war yet again, the monarchs
of Spain and Portugal agreed to hold a conference at which the greatest cosmologists, navigators,
cartographers, and other educated people would discuss the division of the world, since its
dimensions were now more well known. Still, two more fleets were launched to the ‘Spice
Islands’ (the Moluccas) by Spain, and they even fought a few small-scale battles with
Portuguese ships. Events over at the other side of the world
- in the lands Columbus had discovered - now proved to be most important. Any expedition
to the Spice Islands proved so costly as to consume any possible profit, but Hernan Cortes’
expedition to modern Mexico began to open up the true wealth of the Americas to Spain,
Now, the Spice Islands were secondary, and Charles would concede them.
The 1529 Treaty of Zaragoza settled the issue once and for all, at least between Spain and
Portugal. Both empires agreed that the line of demarcation on the ‘far side’ of the
world would fall to the east of the Spice Islands, in effect giving them to Portugal.
In return, Joao III, who was becoming increasingly wealthy from spice trade profits and lacking
any costly military engagements in European politics, gave Charles I 350,000 gold ducats.
Of course, this treasure haul was subsequently used to wage war against France.
This historic agreement ended the first great battle over control of the world’s most
valuable commodities, and refined the boundaries established in 1493. Although it lessened
the dangerous maritime rivalry between Spain and Portugal, empires do not reign supreme
forever. Soon, rising powers such as England, the Dutch Republic, and France would begin
to challenge Iberian hegemony over the new world. In the 1520s however, Spain was just
beginning its ascent to its status as the world’s premier state of the sixteenth century.
The quantity of gold leaving the Americas for Spain gradually increased through the
1500s, from 52,700 pesos worth with Cortes’ first expedition, to a massive 800,000 in
1570. With the discovery of this seemingly limitless wealth, the age of colonisation
began. We always have more stories to tell, so make
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