In August of 1588, the Great Armada threatened to invade England and end the Kingdom of Elizabeth I.
But a combination of English naval prowess and inclement weather spelled disaster for
the Spaniards - and Elizabeth ruled the waves uncontested! Well, not really. Her rival, Philip
II, was actually in the process of refitting his fleet and had no intention to give up the fight.
Elizabeth then decided to launch a pre-emptive strike, the awesome English Counter-Armada of
1589. But a combination of Spanish military might and poor strategic decisions spelled
disaster for the English - and Philip ruled the waves uncontested! Well, not really. The two
expeditions of 1588 and 1589 are but two episodes of the protracted, undeclared Anglo-Spanish war
of 1585 to 1604. Throughout the conflict, both opponents inflicted crushing defeats on each other
and yet were able to muster time and again enough resources and willpower to resume the fight,
both on land and at sea, leading to impressive feats of arms seldom celebrated by popular culture
and historiography alike. In today’s episode, we will cover the years following the English
Counter-Armada, leading up to two of Philip’s most impressive ‘flexes’: the Armadas of 1596 and 1597.
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STALEMATE IN FLANDERS After the failed expedition to
Spain and Portugal of 1589, English land forces and their Dutch allies inflicted a series of
significant defeats against their foes, starting with the capture of Breda on March 4, 1590. During
this daring action, 68 Dutch and English soldiers infiltrated the city at night while hidden inside
a peat barge. The small force took the local garrison completely by surprise, causing them
to rout through the streets of Breda. A strong Dutch cavalry contingent under rebel leader
Maurice of Nassau arrived at dawn, consolidating the Anglo-Dutch hold over the city. This was the
start of a gradual reconquest of the Netherlands. In 1591, the Anglo-Dutch defeated the Spanish
troops under General Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma, at Zutphen, Deventer and Knodsenberg.
This winning streak galvanized English morale: in the spring of 1591, Admiral Lord Howard - the
commander of the fleet against the First Great Armada - fitted a squadron with an ambitious
intent: sailing to the Azores Island and intercepting the annual treasure convoy
sailing from the Americas to Spain. Howard waited in vain until the 30th of August at Flores Island,
when a Spanish fleet did arrive - but from the wrong direction! This was a force under Admiral
Alonso de Bazan, ready to ambush the ‘ambushers.’ On August 30th, Bazan’s ships encircled Howard’s
squadron in a pincer movement, but the experienced English admiral was able to slip away. Only one
ship was left behind: the ‘Revenge’ of Captain Richard Grenville. The Revenge was rammed by a
Spanish galleon and surrounded by five other ships. Despite being completely encircled,
Grenville refused to surrender, fending off all attempts to board his ship and even succeeding
in sinking one Spanish vessel. On the morning of the 31st, Grenville ordered his sailors to blow
up the Revenge, but his men refused to do so, and the legendary ship was captured. However,
Bazan was unable to take home his prize, as a storm sunk the Revenge two weeks
later. As commemorated centuries later by poet Alfred Tennyson, ‘... the little
Revenge herself went down by the island crags To be lost evermore in the main.’
In August 1592, Alonso de Bazan engaged the English Navy once again off Flores Island,
which this time around was led by Admiral Martin Frobisher. In a mirror image of the
previous year’s engagement, five English ships surrounded and attacked a huge Portuguese carrack,
the Madre de Deus, one of the largest ships ever built. After ramming and boarding her, a bloody
closed-quarter combat ensued, culminating with Frobisher’s victory. To the admiral’s surprise,
the Madre de Deus carried an enormous treasure valued at 500,000 pounds, nearly half of the
Kingdom of England’s royal annual revenue! When the Portuguese carrack was taken to Dartmouth,
however, it was subjected to mass theft by the locals. Elizabeth I dispatched famed privateer
Walter Raleigh to punish the looters, but he was able to recover only 140,000 pounds. Nonetheless,
it was considerable loot, which allowed for further military operations in Flanders. The
Anglo-Dutch victories continued well into the summer of 1594 when the capture of Groningen
expelled the Spaniards from the northern provinces of Flanders. In March 1595, the arrival of a new
Spanish general, the 90-year-old Cristobal de Mondragon, turned the tables once again,
and the Anglo-Dutch were defeated at Huy and in September at the Battle of the Lippe.
CADIZ In 1596, the Spanish had stalemated
their adversaries in Flanders, as the bulk of the English troops were withdrawn from the theatre in
preparation for another attack on Spanish soil. This was the result of intrigue at the court of
Philip II. Back in 1578, the King was the target of a conspiracy plotted by his secretary, Antonio
Perez, and his half-brother Juan de Austria. Fearing retribution, Perez switched sides,
accusing Austria’s own secretary, Escobedo, of treason. Thus, in March, Perez convinced the King
to have Escobedo assassinated. Philip was wary of Perez’s intrigues and had him incarcerated for 11
years. After his release, Perez left the court and eventually defected to England. Years later,
in 1596, Perez enacted his revenge against the King, encouraging Elizabeth to mount an attack
against the port of Cadiz in southern Spain, as he knew of the city’s vulnerabilities.
Lord Howard was again at the helm, leading a force of 150 Anglo-Dutch vessels carrying
15,000 troops. On June 30, 1596, Howard sighted the port of Cadiz, which was defended by 68
warships. These defences, however, were effective only on paper, as most of the officers were not
on board. Moreover, a large part of the Spanish contingent consisted of the Tierra Firme fleet,
temporarily stationed in Cadiz before sailing off to the Americas. The private owners of this fleet,
sensing the approaching battle, opted to leave port immediately to save their cargo
of four million ducats. The departure of the Tierra Firme allowed Howard to enter the bay,
engage the Spanish galleons, and form the next line of defence. The galleons managed to sink
two English ships and set fire to a third. Nevertheless, outnumbered by their rivals,
they were forced to withdraw and ran aground on the beach of Los Puntales. The crews decided to
set their ships on fire, and their example was followed by the other vessels at port to prevent
the English from seizing their cargo. Among the flaming vessels was the Spanish flagship,
the San Felipe. This infernal spectacle was witnessed by poet and soldier John Donne,
inspiring his epigram ‘A Burnt Ship’: ‘Out of a fired ship, which by no way
But drowning could be rescued from the flame, Some men leaped forth, and ever as they came
Near the foes’ ships did by their shot decay; So all were lost which in the ship were found,
They in the sea being burnt, they in the burnt ship drowned.’
The crews of the burning galleons rushed to the gates of Cadiz, seeking refuge. The city garrison
refused to open the gates, prompting the sailors to scale the walls. This proved to be a bad move,
for unwittingly, they had just shown Howard how to access the city! As the English troops
stormed the walls, the mayor Antonio Girón and the garrison commander retreated to the inner castle,
leaving the citizens without weapons. Apparently, only the local Franciscan friars put up a staunch
yet futile resistance against the attackers. Eventually, Antonio Girón surrendered Cadiz
to Howard, paying a ransom of 120,000 ducats to ensure the release of the city’s aristocrats. This
hefty payout was augmented by more riches looted by Howard’s men. After two weeks of pillaging,
the English fleet finally departed with two captured galleons in tow.
THE SECOND ARMADA - OCTOBER 1596 Following the sack of Cadiz, Philip II
ordered the preparation of a counter-expedition against England: the 2nd Spanish Armada.
This naval enterprise had three objectives: first, to avenge the defeat in Cadiz; second,
to open a new front to distract English resources from operations in Flanders; and third, to support
a Catholic insurgency in Ireland led by Count Tyrone. The Spanish coffers were nigh exhausted,
but they were to receive a much-needed boost from the annual treasure fleet sailing in from the
Americas in the summer of 1596. An English fleet under Admiral Cumberland was ready to intercept
the treasure-laden vessels lurking near the Azores. But the ambush was prevented by the
arrival of 36 vessels under Luis Fajardo, sailing from Seville. Fajardo’s intervention dealt little
damage to Cumberland’s squadrons, but it was enough to ensure the safe arrival of the treasure.
Philip now had the gold he needed and asked his admiral Diego Brochero de la Paz y Anaya to draw a
plan. Brochero joined forces with Captain General Martín de Padilla, one of the commanders who had
defeated the English Counter-Armada of 1589, and the two formulated an apparently winning strategy.
A large number of vessels was first assembled in Lisbon, consisting of 98 ships, transporting
10,730 Spanish, Portuguese, Breton and Irish soldiers. This already impressive expedition
was further strengthened by two more fleets, one sailing from Seville and the other from Vigo.
In total, the Second Armada counted 175 ships and approximately 14,000 troops. Brochero and
Padilla had taken great care of provisioning the fleet with enough supplies to withstand a lengthy
operation. Detailed records tell us that the two commanders sourced, among other supplies, 150 tons
of salt pork, 68 tons of cheese, 996 barrels of wine and 96 tons of peas - for your five-a-day.
Perhaps more importantly, the transport ships also carried 180 tons of gunpowder,
3,000 cannon balls, and 36,000 escudos to pay the troops. Once fitted and supplied, the mighty
Second Armada was to sail towards Ireland to link up with Count Tyrone’s rebels. After establishing
a strong foothold on Ireland and replenishing their numbers with Tyrone’s men, Brochero and
Padilla could then easily cross the Irish Sea and launch the main assault against England.
The fleet was almost completely assembled by October 24, 1596, but a further 11 ships were
expected from Cadiz. The Armada would then head to Ferrol, north-western Spain, and then pick up
another 11 vessels in Guipuzcoa, Basque Country. Brochero and Padilla, however, were worried about
worsening weather conditions and decided to set sail from Lisbon without waiting for the Cadiz
reinforcements. Ironically, their meteorological concerns spelled the doom of the expedition. On
October 28, the Armada was taken by surprise by a powerful storm and violently scattered
close to Cape Finisterre. The name of this Cape derives from the Latin for ‘End of the Earth.’
Perhaps the ruthless tempest which hit their vessels felt more like the ‘End of the World’
to Brochero and Padilla’s men. It was a true … ARMADAgeddon. Forty-three warships and transports
were driven towards land, crashing against the aptly named Costa de la Muerte - the Coast of
Death. Thirty-two vessels sank immediately, dragging nearly 2,000 men to the bottom of
the sea. 11 more ships were so badly damaged that their crews were forced to scuttle them.
THE ISLANDS VOYAGE The failure of the
Second Armada was an almost lethal blow to Spanish morale and resources. Philip II,
however, was not yet defeated, and in the summer of 1597, he resumed efforts to rebuild his fleet
in Ferrol. This time, the English navy would not wait for bad weather to intervene on their behalf
and prepared a pre-emptive strike, similar to the counter–Armada of 1589. Robert Devereux,
Earl of Essex and favourite of Elizabeth I, took command of the expeditionary force
consisting of 145 English and Dutch vessels. As his second-in-command, Essex, could count
on the expertise of privateer Walter Raleigh. It appears that God, or Nature, had not picked
sides in this conflict, as a violent summer storm struck at the Anglo-Dutch vessels,
blowing them off course into the Atlantic. Essex argued that the fleet should regroup
and head towards their primary objective, but Raleigh disagreed. He pointed out that they
could now head towards their secondary objective: intercepting the annual Spanish treasure fleet
sailing back from the Americas. The Anglo-Dutch squadrons thus headed towards the Azores,
ready to ambush their prized prey. This enterprise would be later known as ‘The Islands’ Voyage’.
Raleigh’s timing was indeed spot on. That June, General Juan Gutiérrez de Garibay had
set sail from Havana to the Azores at the head of the treasure convoy, his ships filled to the
brim with precious metals and 10 million pesos. However, the crafty General Garibay would not
make for easy prey. He was warned in advance of the impending ambush and managed to take refuge
at the port of Angra on Terceira Island. He then secured the treasure in the nearby fort,
unloaded his heavier guns from his galleons and set up defensive trenches along the beach.
Essex challenged Garibay’s defences, leading his flagship near the coastline. The Spanish
guns reacted decisively, scoring hits on his stern and helm. Essex retreated and
decided to blockade Angra with his ships instead. Garibay considered enduring a blockade and siege
but eventually opted for a daring sortie. The Treasure convoy sailed out in a compact formation,
heading straight towards a squadron under William Monson. The latter was unable to stop Garibay,
and the Spanish fleet was able to return home with their treasure intact. As a side note, the failure
of the Islands Voyage marked the decline of Essex, with Raleigh becoming the new rising star
at Elizabeth’s court. Essex was imprisoned for his failure and would be eventually executed in 1601.
THE THIRD ARMADA Thanks to Garibay, King Philip now had
plenty of cash to splash on the next instalment of his ambitious, yet thus far unfortunate,
franchise. Moreover, most of the English fleet had yet to return from their islands’ voyage. It
was the perfect time to strike, and in the late summer of 1597, preparations began to launch
a Third Armada. Fan favourite Martín de Padilla was cast again as commander of the land troops,
while Juan del Aguila was appointed overall leader of the expedition. By the 1st of October,
Aguila and Padilla had assembled their forces in Coruna and Ferrol, consisting of 150 vessels,
8,634 soldiers, 4,000 sailors, 2,500 artillery pieces and 300 horses. A secondary,
smaller fleet, transporting 1,000 men, was also ready to sail towards Blavet,
in Brittany, a Spanish possession since 1590. Padilla and Aguila sailed out on October 19.
Their plan was to stage a landing in Falmouth on the Cornish coast. From there, the invasion force
could be reinforced by troops stationed in Blavet and then march towards London. After three days
of literal smooth sailing, the Third Armada reached the English Channel, encountering no
resistance. Just when the coast of Cornwall was on sight, winds from the north unleashed a frightful
hurricane. The Spanish sailors tried to resist the storm, with their prows facing the winds,
but the elements eventually had the upper hand. Most supply ships lost their masts,
and the bulk of the fleet was scattered. Only seven vessels made it to Cornwall,
and 400 infantry troops disembarked near Falmouth. The landing party dug in for two days,
awaiting reinforcements, while the local militia kept at a safe distance. When the
400 Spaniards realised that they were stranded in enemy territory, they boarded their ships and
sailed back home. While not as disastrous as the two previous Armadas, this expedition had
nonetheless cost between 22 and 28 ships, with up to 1,500 casualties. For the third time in
10 years, the forces of nature had foiled Spanish attempts to stage a decisive invasion of England.
Exhausted by the protracted war, old and ill with cancer, Philip II died on September 13, 1598. The
war with England was far from over, however, and would be continued by his 20-year-old son,
Philip III. Despite showing less enthusiasm for the conflict than his father, the young king
would nonetheless order a Fourth Armada in 1601 to support the Irish rebellion. We will cover this
conflict in a future episode, as more videos on English and Spanish history are on the way. Make
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