Today we are going to look at famines throughout history.
In An Essay on the Principle of Population Thomas Malthus, in 1826, wrote:
“The effects of nature’s check on man are complicated. Impelled to the increase
of his speciesby an equally powerful instinct, reason interrupts his career, and asks whether
he may not bring beings into the world, for whom he cannot provide the means of support.
If he hear not this suggestion, the human race will be constantly endeavoring to increase
beyond the means of subsistence. But as, by that law of our nature which makes food necessary
to the life of man, population can never actually increase beyond the lowest nourishment capable
of supporting it, a strong check on population, namely, the difficulty of acquiring food,
must be constantly in operation.“
Ready access to food is always an urgent concern.
As hunter-gatherers, semi-nomadic ancestors of modern humans experienced relatively few
food shortages by tracking and hunting migrating animal herds to feed smaller populations.
The prevalence of agriculture resulted in permanent settlements and population increase,
along with dependence on abundant crop yields. With this innovation, the largely human created
problem of famine has indelibly marked human experience and subjected people to the whims
of climate change in new and often serious ways.
The ever-present threat of famine predates the earliest surviving written accounts, but
we present to you the following devastation from the second millenium B.C.
The 4.2-kiloyear BP aridification event was a severe climatic event. It started in 2200
BC, and most likely lasted the entire century. It greatly reduced rainfall for areas of North
Africa, the Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Subcontinent, and the middle of
North America. Agricultural food production would have been severely reduced.
It is suggested by some experts that the aridification event facilitated the collapse of the Old
Kingdom in Egypt. Additional casualties are thought to be the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia,
and the Liangzhu Culture in the lower Yangtze River area. The resulting drought may have
also triggered a collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization, and could have been the cause
of Indo-European speaking people moving to India.
The Persian Gulf area also shows evidence of having been affected by the aridification
event. After 2200 BC, there is a change in settlement patterns and pottery styles. The
style of burial also changed. Somewhere around 2200 BC, the Umm al-Nar culture that inhabited
this area disappeared and the Wadi Suq culture arrived. Drought, and resulting food shortages,
are thought to be the catalyst that ended the Umm al-Nar at this location.
Most ancient civilizations in the affected areas seem to have been unable to adapt to
changing climate conditions successfully. Rapid environmental change without modern
technology to compensate was very deadly in the ancient world. Crop yields did not always
provide a large surplus, and even if they did, long term food storage was difficult.
Environmental issues also proved disastrous in the years 535 to 536 AD. It was initially
believed that a large volcanic eruption occurred in 535, most likely in a tropical region.
It has been suggested that the eruption caused dust particles to diffuse throughout the atmosphere.
This blocked sunlight for several months.
Whether or not a volcano was the root cause, there was most definitely a severe but short
period of cooling in the Northern Hemisphere during those years. It disrupted weather patterns
all over the world, which resulted in crop failures. Shortly thereafter, populations
decreased as starvation progressed.
Some evidence of the dust cloud can be found from the writings of Byzantine historian Procopius.
In 536 AD, in a report concerning war with the Vandals, he wrote,
"during this year a most dread portent took place. For the sun gave forth its light without
brightness ... and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed
were not clear"
Scientific evidence also exists which confirms many theories about this disaster. Dendrochronologist
Mike Baillie examined tree rings for Irish Oak and found a decrease in growth in 536.
Similar patterns were also discovered from trees in Sweden, Finland, California, and
Chile. In addition to trees, ice cores from Antarctica and Greenland from around 535 were
examined and found to contain sulfates. This suggests that an acidic veil may have surrounded
the area until parts of it settled on the ice, which helps prove that the volcanic eruption
theory is likely correct.
A 2015 study further supported the theory of a volcanic eruption in 535 or 536. But,
it placed the location of the volcano in North America rather than the tropics.
The Ancestral Puebloans were a Native American civilization that also suffered through famine
events. They inhabited areas which are currently located in the United States. The areas in
which their settlements have been found include southeastern Utah, northeastern Arizona, northwestern
New Mexico, and southwestern Colorado. Their civilization collapsed due to famine sometime
between 1275 and 1299 A.D.
The archaeological evidence shows that it was not uncommon for the Puebloans to migrate
to various locations as climate shifted. Many of the sites examined were occupied for 30
years or less. It appeared that the inhabitants would occupy the areas during periods of above
average rainfall, when crops could be grown without irrigation. Nearby areas that experienced
below average rainfall would be abandoned, a further indication that migration was a
common strategy for the Puebloans.
Around 1130, North America experienced an event known as the Great Drought which lasted
for 300 years. This is thought to have been a partial explanation for why the Ancestral
Puebloans abandoned their settlements in the 13th century.
Some Puebloan villages relocated from canyons to mesas in the late 13th century. The most
likely reason to move away from water and arable land was to better defend against enemies.
Environmental pressures quite likely pushed many isolated communities to raid others for
food rather than grow their own during this time. Although climate change created the
initial conditions for famine, violence between groups became almost equally important in
spreading its impacts.
Famine found its way to Europe many times, but one of the most notable is The Great Famine
of 1315 to 1317. Almost all of Europe was affected, and the event caused millions to
die over a period of several years. Before it was over, people had resorted to eating
seed grain and slaughtering draft animals for food. Also, children were often left to
fend for themselves and the elderly began to refuse food so that the young could survive.
Recovery of food production did not begin until after 1322.
The Great Famine started when bad weather in the spring of 1315 resulted in crop failures.
Crop failures continued until the summer harvest in 1317. The interim period was very unpleasant.
It produced extremely high levels of crime and disease. Even cannabilism and infanticide
were common during those years.
The start of the famine coincided with the end of the Medieval Warm Period. This was
an extremely warm period from about 950 AD to 1250 AD. Once the warm period ended, Europe
experienced rainy, cold summers and extremely cold winters. There are some experts who suspect
that the cause could be a volcanic eruption. A likely candidate is Mount Tarawera in New
Zealand.
As we have seen in other examples, human behavior multiplies the effect of climate caused famines.
Population at the start of the Great Famine was at an all time high, and Medieval governments
were completely ineffective in handling the crises. There was very little margin to handle
a sudden drop in food production, so starvation arrived quickly once the crops failed.
Even the elite members of society could not escape the effects. Medieval Europe encountered
famines frequently, even though most were not as severe as the Great Famine. Most people
in these societies seldom had enough to eat. For instance, according to official records
about the English Royal family, the average life expectancy in 1276 was 35.28 years. This
is only slightly higher than life expectancy in hunter gatherer groups, which according
to some sources averages 33 years.
In one documented incident, Edward II of England stopped at St Albans in August of 1315. The
King could not find bread for himself or his entourage. Apparently in Medieval Europe,
even Kings could not find food at times. As a result, the nobility was also vulnerable
to the same diseases that threatened the lower classes.
By the 19th century, most famines that occurred were the result of government policies. Although
crop failures still happened, food production typically far exceeded consumption. Economic
decisions, however, could often create shortages that would have otherwise never existed.
The Great Famine In Ireland, also known as the Irish Potato Famine, occurred from 1845
to 1849. During the famine, around one million people died, and another million left the
country.
The initial cause was a potato blight that affected crops all over Europe during the
1840s. Around 100,000 deaths occurred outside of Ireland as a result, demonstrating that
Ireland was not the only place that had to deal with crop failures. The reason why so
many Irish died, unfortunately, is that economic policies created additional shortages.
Throughout the entire famine, Ireland was exporting enormous quantities of food. In
an issue of History Ireland from 1997 Christine Kinealy, a Drew University professor, related
some shocking details concerning her research into the topic.
During 1847, almost 4,000 transport ships carried food from the ports of Ireland to
various ports in England. Exports of calves, livestock, bacon, and ham actually increased
during the worst part of the famine. Some other items that were exported for economic
reasons during this time were: peas, beans, onions, rabbits, salmon, oysters, herring,
lard, honey, and seed.
Even more incredible is the amount of butter Ireland exported while its people died from
starvation. In the first 9 months of 1847, 2,314,000 liters of butter were shipped to
several ports in England.
Although crop failures were an issue, Ireland clearly had diversity in food production.
It should have been able to successfully feed its people during this time. The economic
policies which resulted in Ireland exporting so much food meant that food was available,
but most people simply couldn’t afford it.
Unbridled capitalism is not the only economic system which creates unnecessary food shortages.
The Russian famine of 1921 to 1922 was, much like Ireland, the result of crop failures
combined with policies that exacerbated the situation.
The was also known as the Povolzhye famine, and killed an estimated five million people.
The lower classes frequently resorted to cannibalism to survive.
A number of factors contributed to the start of the famine. The Russian Revolution and
the Russian Civil War were ongoing, which meant that troops had to be fed. Also, thanks
to the conflicts, rail transport was unreliable. Thus, there were issues transporting food
to areas that needed it. The policy of war communism was also a huge contributor as the
government confiscated food and redistributed it according to standards that did not necessarily
take starving peasants into account.
An intermittent drought in 1921 made the situation even worse. At one point, international relief
agencies that were trying to help had to give food to railroad staff just to ensure supplies
were transported at all. Before the famine ended, the United States had also sent enough
food and medicine for 11 million people. However, during this international relief effort, the
Soviet government continued to export grain to try and revive industry. Economic policies
clearly offset any benefit provided by international assistance.
By contrast to other systems of government, it is interesting to note that a major famine
has not happened under any modern democratic systems. This doesn’t mean they are immune
to famine, but rather that government policies don’t appear to increase the severity of
problems when shortages occur. Some experts theorize that because leaders in democratic
societies have to be elected to keep their positions, they are more highly motivated
to prevent widespread starvation. Essentially, democratic systems provide a direct relationship
between the well being of the people and self preservation of the leaders. Most authoritarian
systems of government lack this feedback mechanism.
In many ways, the discovery of agriculture was not beneficial where the quality of human
life was concerned. Our hunter gatherer ancestors certainly lived a difficult life, but it was
also much more consistent in terms of food availability. For much of the history of civilization,
people have experienced periods of surplus followed by periods of starvation. Since crops
and livestock were the only way to support large communities, climate change in the ancient
world could eliminate food surpluses with a single failure.
As populations increased and systems of government became more specialized in the Middle Ages,
it became possible to better manage food shortages. But the governments did not use their power
to do that. Instead they either ignored problems or increased their severity.
Even in modern times when food production can easily create surpluses, governments have
sometimes redirected shipments and created famine where none would exist otherwise. And
at any time in human history, warfare could cause food supply issues as well. Between
unpredictable climate shifts, diseases that affect food crops, warfare, and bad economic
policies, it would seem the fact that most people do not starve today is an anomaly by
historical standards.
This conclusion also seems to be supported by Malthus, who wrote in The First Essay:
“Famine seems to be the last, the most dreadful resource of nature.
The power of population is so superior to the power in the earth
to produce subsistence for man, that premature death must in some
shape or other visit the human race. The vices of mankind are
active and able ministers of depopulation. They are the
precursors in the great army of destruction.”
Malthus wrote this in 1798 however. Had he seen how modern agriculture works, he may
have focused much more on the vices of mankind. Thanks to modern technology, we can store
food surpluses for many years. A single crop failure should not cause widespread famine
thanks to the global economy and modern distribution methods. Plus, most countries in the world
promote economic policies which do not result in starvation among their own citizens.
Clearly some countries in the world still experience famine. Most of these are caused
almost entirely by warfare and authoritarian systems of government, although the role of
climate cannot be underestimated. Centralized control of food production and distribution
seems to often be a precursor of starvation however.
Do you think that spreading democracy could help reduce famine? Or, will climate change
eventually overwhelm its ability to manage food shortages?
Alternatively, have democratic systems simply gotten lucky so far?
Thank you for watching Bad Things in History.