The Omani Empire was a maritime empire, vying with Portugal and Britain for trade and influence
in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. At its peak in the 19th century, Omani influence
or control extended across the Strait of Hormuz to modern-day Iran and Pakistan, and as far
south as Cape Delgado. After the death of Said bin Sultan in 1856 the empire was divided
between his sons into two sultanates, an African section ruled by Majid bin Said and an Asian
section ruled by Thuwaini bin Said. History
Becoming a regional power Muscat which is located in a strategic location
on trade routes came under the control of the Portuguese Empire between 1507 and 1650.
However, the Portuguese didn't succeed in controlling Oman in its entirety. In mid-17th
century, the Omani tribes were able to end the Portuguese presence in Muscat.
In the year 1696, under the reign of Saif bin Sultan, an Omani fleet attacked Mombasa,
besieging the Portuguese Fort Jesus, in which 2,500 civilians had taken refuge. The siege
of the fort ended after 33 months when the garrison dying of hunger surrendered to the
Omanis. In the following years, Saif bin Sultan continued a process of expansion down the
east coast of Africa. By 1783, the Omani Empire had expanded eastwards to Gwadar in present
day Pakistan. The Omanis also continued attacking Portuguese bases in western India but failed
to conquer any. In the north, the Omanis moved into the Persian Gulf, taking Bahrain from
the Persians, holding it for several years. The expansion of Omani power and influence
southwards included the first large-scale settlement of Zanzibar by Omani migrants.
Ya'rubid Dynasty The agriculture in Oman had undergone a massive
improvement under Saif bin Sultan. He is known for providing water to the interior lands
of Oman, while he encouraged Omani Arabs to move from the interior and settle along the
coast by planting date palms in the coastal Al Batinah Region. The town in the interior
of Oman, Al Hamra, has it Irrigation system improved by the new built large falaj, it
seems that the Yaruba dynasty supported major investment in settlement and agricultural
works such as terracing along the Wadi Bani Awf. Saif bin Sultan built new schools. He
made the castle of Rustaq his residence, adding the Burj al Riah wind tower.
Saif bin Sultan died on 4 October 1711. He was buried in the castle of Rustaq in a luxurious
tomb, later destroyed by a Wahhabi general. At his death he had great wealth, said to
include 28 ships, 700 male slaves and one third of Oman's date trees. He was succeeded
by his son. Sultan bin Saif II established his capital at Al-Hazm on the road from Rustaq
to the coast. Now just a village, there still are remains of a great fortress that he built
around 1710, and which contains his tomb.
Alliance with the British Empire Sultan bin Ahmad assumed control of the government
after the death of his nephew and strengthened the already powerful fleet by adding numerous
gunships and sleek cargo vessels, he also needed a strong ally to help him regain control
of Mombasa from the Mazrui clan, fight off the movement spreading from what is now Saudi
Arabia and to keep the Qasimi tribes from the Persian city of Lengeh out of Oman. He
found this able ally in Great Britain, who by this time was a powerful maritime nation
with an Empire expanding all over the world. In the late 18th century, the second British
Empire was at war with France and knew that the French emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte, was
planning to march through Persia and capture Muscat on his way to invade India. In 1798
Britain and Oman agreed on a Treaty of Commerce and Navigation.
Sultan bin Ahmad pledged himself to British interests in India, and his territories became
out of bounds to the French. He allowed the British East India Company to establish the
first trading station in the Persian Gulf, and a British consul was posted to Muscat.
As well as defeating Bonaparte, the British had another motive for the treaty with Oman:
they wanted to put pressure on the sultan to end slavery, which had been declared illegal
in England in 1772. At this time, the trade from Africa to Oman was still buoyant, and
Zanzibar's position as an important trade centre was bolstered further when the supply
of ivory from Mozambique to India collapsed because of excessive Portuguese export duties.
The traders simply shipped their ivory through Zanzibar instead. Omani warships were in constant
skirmishes up and down the gulf, which kept Sultan preoccupied. It was in the course of
one of his sorties during an incursion abroad a ship in the Persian Gulf in 1804 that Sayyid
Sultan was shot in the head by a stray bullet, he was buried in Lengeh.
Relations with the United States of America On 21 September 1833 a historic treaty of
friendship and trade was signed with the United States of America. It was the second trade
treaty formulated by the U.S. and an Arab state . The United States and Oman both stood
to benefit, as the U.S. – unlike Britain and France – had no territorial ambitions
in the Middle East and was solely interested in commerce. On 13 April 1840, the ship Al-Sultanah
docked at New York, making it the first Arab envoy to ever visit the New World. Her crew
of fifty-six Arab sailors caused a flurry of excitement among the three hundred thousand
residents of that thriving metropolis. Al-Sultanah carried ivory, Persian rugs, spices, coffee
and dates, as well as lavish gifts for President Martin Van Buren. The visit of Al-Sultanah
lasted nearly four months, in which time the emissary, Ahmad bin Na'aman Al Kaabi, the
first Arab emissary to visit the United States and his officers were entertained by state
and city dignitaries. They received resolutions passed by official bodies, were given tours
of New York City and saw sections which would, a few decades later, become colonies of Arabic-speaking
immigrants. Among Bin Na'aman's hosts was Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt, in whose home
he met Governor William H. Seward and Vice President Richard Mentor Johnson. The visit
of Ahmad bin Na'aman Al Kaabi to America was a happy one, and when he prepared to leave,
the United States completely repaired Al-Sultanah and presented him with gifts for his Sultan.
Said bin Sultan of al-Busaid Dynasty Said bin Sultan was son of Sultan bin Ahmad,
who ruled Oman from 1792 to 1804. Sultan bin Ahmad died in 1804 on an expedition to Basra.
He appointed Mohammed bin Nasir bin Mohammed al-Jabry as the Regent and guardian of his
two sons, Salim bin Sultan and Said bin Sultan. Sultan's brother Qais bin Ahmad, ruler of
Sohar, decided to attempt to seize power. Early in 1805 Qais and his brother Mohammed
marched south along the coast to Muttrah, which he easily captured. Qais then started
to besiege Muscat. Mohammed bin Nasir tried to bribe Qais to leave, but did not succeed.
Mohammed bin Nasir called on Badr bin Saif for help. After a series of engagements, Qais
was forced to retire to Sohar. Badr bin Saif became the effective ruler. Allied with the
Wahhabis, Badr bin Saif became increasingly unpopular.To get his wards out of the way,
Badr bin Saif made Salim bin Sultan governor of Al Maşna‘ah, on the Batinah coast and
Said bin Sultan governor of Barka.
In 1806, Said bin Sultan lured Badr bin Saif to Barka and murdered him nearby. Said was
proclaimed ruler of Oman. There are different accounts of what happened, but it seems clear
that Said struck the first blow and his supporters finished the job. Said was acclaimed by the
people as a liberator from the Wahhabis, who left the country. Qais bin Ahmad at once gave
his support to Said. Nervous of the Wahhabi reaction, Said blamed Mohammed bin Nasir for
the murder.
The division of the empire Schisms within the ruling family were apparent
after the death of Said bin Sultan, as his sons who had their own rivalries and ambitions
for controlling the throne quarreled over the empire. Realizing that Majid would be
unaware of their father’s death, Barghash came ashore secretly and tried to take control
of the palace at Mtoni and the fort in Zanzibar town, but he was unable to muster enough supporters
and his attempt was thwarted.
On 28 October 1856, Majid proclaimed himself Sultan of Zanzibar. A ship was sent to Oman
with the news, but Said's elder son Thuwaini, who was appointed heir apparent on 23 July
1844 and had long acted as his father's Governor in Muscat and commander-in-chief of the Saidi
forces, refused to acknowledge Majid and immediately tried to regain Zanzibar by force of arms.
As a direct result of this struggle, the government of British India, concerned with the stability
in the area, acted as arbitrator in the dispute. The Governor-General of British India, Lord
Canning ruled in his arbitration that the empire was to be divided into two separate
sultanates: The Sultanate of Zanzibar with its dependencies to Majid bin Said, Said's
former Governor of the East African dominions, and the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman to Thuwaini
bin Said. On 10 March 1862, the Zanzibar Guarantee Treaty was signed in Paris by Britain and
France, whereby both parties agreed to respect the independence of the Sultan of Oman and
the Sultan of Zanzibar. Recognizing the economic loss caused to Oman by the severance of the
Zanzibar connection, Thuwaini insisted Majid pay 40,000 Maria Theresa thalers annually
as compensation but the payment fell into arrears and ceased a year later.