Over the past three centuries or even longer,
more than 200 accounts of ball lightning have been reported in various forms. Most
descriptions depict these enigmatic phenomena as predominantly yellowish-reddish spheres,
measuring up to 20 centimeters in diameter, with lifespans ranging from seconds to minutes
before they either fade away quietly or vanish with an abrupt, thunderous exit.
From peasants in the Middle Ages to Tsar Nicholas II in the 19th century, sightings
of ball lightning amid thunderstorms have consistently left people perplexed. Some have even
claimed to witness these luminous orbs passing through solid walls and causing physical harm.
Join me as we try and unravel this perplexing mystery...
OBSERVATIONS While there are numerous anecdotal reports
of ball lightning, the scientific community has historically struggled to document and study
the phenomenon under controlled conditions due to its rare and unpredictable nature.
One of the earliest recorded instances comes from Georg Richmann, who conducted pioneering
work in the realm of electricity and atmospheric electricity. Tragically, he met his end through
electrocution in St. Petersburg when struck by ball lightning generated during an experiment
aimed at grounding the electrical discharge from a storm. The incident left him with a conspicuous
red mark on his forehead, his shoes blown open, and parts of his clothing singed. The impact had
also dislodged his engraver, fractured the room's door frame, and wrenched the door from its hinges.
In 2012, a group of Chinese scientists were investigating thunderstorms and
lightning in northwestern China. They captured the phenomenon on
video during the thunderstorm. The footage showed a bright,
spherical object moving horizontally across the landscape before disappearing.
CHARACTERISTICS Appearance: Ball lightning
is typically described as a glowing, spherical object ranging in size from
a golf ball to a large beach ball. The color of the light can vary,
with reported colours including white, yellow, orange, red, or even blue.
Duration: Observations of ball lightning suggest that it can persist for several
seconds to minutes before disappearing. Some reports describe a gradual fading,
while others note sudden disappearance or explosion.
Movement: Ball lightning is known for its erratic
and unpredictable movement. Witnesses have reported that it can float, hover,
travel along straight or zigzag paths, and even pass through solid objects.
Sound: In some cases, witnesses have reported accompanying sounds such as
hissing, buzzing, or sizzling. However, many observations of ball lightning are silent.
Temperature: Reports vary regarding the perceived temperature of ball lightning.
Some witnesses claim it was cool or cold to the touch, while others describe it as hot.
Interactions: There are accounts of ball lightning entering buildings
through windows or doors, passing through walls, and even causing damage. However,
many observations suggest that ball lightning often appears to be harmless.
Occurrences: Ball lightning is frequently associated with thunderstorms, lightning strikes,
or electrical disturbances. However, it has also been reported in the absence
of these conditions, adding to the mystery surrounding its formation.
The complexity of accounts regarding ball lightning makes it challenging to find a single
explanation that encompasses them all. Throughout the years, various theories have emerged,
ranging from electromagnetic radiation, plasmoids, antimatter, masers to chemical reactions. Let's
examine some of these concepts and experiments and see which ones could account for Ball lightning
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The Silicon Hypothesis:
One theory that has garnered attention is the Silicon Hypothesis, put forth by John Abrahamson
of the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand. According to this theory, when
lightning strikes silicon-rich soil, a chemical reaction ensues. In this process, silicon reacts
with oxygen and carbon to generate a luminous, fiery sphere. Experiments conducted in Brazil
involving high-voltage discharges have yielded results that appear to support this mechanism.
The Maser-Soliton Theory:
In 1955 the eminent Russian physicist Peter Kapitsa proposed that ball lightning could be
interpreted as an electrodeless discharge initiated by stationary UHF (Ultra High
Frequency) waves of unexplained origin present between the Earth and the clouds. The contemporary
rendition of the UHF discharge approach, offers an intriguing perspective. According to this theory,
outdoor ball lightning is the result of an atmospheric maser, akin to a laser but operating
at significantly lower energy levels and spanning a volume encompassing several cubic kilometers.
The maser formation occurs through a population inversion triggered within the rotational energy
levels of water molecules by the short field pulse generated during streak lightning. The
vast expanse of air affected by the lightning strike makes it difficult for photons to escape
before they trigger microwave amplification via stimulated emission of radiation,
commonly referred to as the maser effect. Unless the air volume is exceptionally large
or enclosed within a conducting cavity, molecular collisions consume the energy
of the population inversion. In the event of a substantial volume, the maser can generate
a localized electrical field or soliton, giving rise to the observed ball lightning. However,
replicating such a discharge in a laboratory setting has proven elusive.
This theory finds support in three well-documented observations about ball lightning:
1. Ball lightning rarely appears on sharp mountain peaks, high-rise buildings,
or elevated structures that attract lightning strikes. Interestingly,
most locations for lightning research aim to draw lightning to such points and have yet to observe
the formation of ball lightning. The field pulse generated when lightning strikes high,
pointed objects is localized within a narrow cone, enclosing a relatively small volume. According
to the Maser-Soliton theory, such an environment is unsuitable for the maser effect. In contrast,
when lightning strikes flat terrain, the resulting field pulse is significantly larger,
spanning around 10 kilometers in width and 3 kilometers in height.
2. Ball lightning poses no harm within airplanes, submarines, or homes equipped with conducting
frames. According to the Maser-Soliton theory, the energy of the maser in such
environments is limited to approximately 10 joules, in stark contrast to the 10^10
joules in open air. This limited energy is insufficient to pose a threat to human life.
3. Open-air ball lightning often culminates in a sudden, violent explosion, occasionally
resulting in substantial damage. What is peculiar about these explosions is their
tendency to forcibly displace conducting objects rather than dielectric ones. For instance,
electrical connection boxes are at times extracted from within the walls of houses by outdoor ball
lightning and propelled into the middle of the street. According to the Maser-Soliton theory,
when the discharge that was consuming the photons generated by the maser suddenly ceases,
these photons experience extended lifetimes and instantaneous multiplication, no longer confined
by the maser effect. This proliferation triggers a nearly instantaneous, exponential growth of
the electric field. The rapid escalation is insufficient to cause electrical breakdown
or heating, but it could induce substantial "ponderomotive forces," resulting in mechanical
effects capable of disassembling composite objects with varying dielectric constants.
Electric Discharge Phenomena:
When lightning strikes a point on the Earth's surface, it transfers an amount of charge,
typically negative, via the lightning arc from the cloud to the ground. In response,
positive charge is transferred from the ground to the cloud within a timeframe
of up to 1 millisecond. This return stroke has been successfully modelled, providing theoretical
waveforms for magnetic and electric fields as a function of time and distance from the lightning
discharge. These models have traditionally assumed the Earth to be a perfect conductor for
the dispersion of charge. However, calculations assuming the Earth to be an insulator with zero
electrical conductivity yield comparable results for the vertical component of the electric field.
Recent photographs from experiments involving triggered lightning and natural
lightning suggest that lightning can give rise to filamentary arcing along the Earth's surface,
extending to distances of at least 20 meters. These arc channels and the
fused rock structures known as fulgurites, formed in the ground over several meters,
initially exhibit high electrical conductivity during the initial stage of electric charge
dispersion. The velocity of charge dispersion during electric breakdown in a gaseous medium
typically exceeds 10^7 centimeters per second, surpassing the electron drift velocity.
Beyond the region of electric breakdown in the Earth, the dispersing charge encounters materials
like rock, soil, and water, which typically act as insulators with significantly lower electrical
conductivity. Consequently, the velocities of charge dispersion in insulators are considerably
lower. It is plausible that at greater distances from the lightning strike, the dispersing charges
may consist of negative ions rather than electrons, exhibiting even lower mobility.
One proposition is that these dispersing charges at extended distances from the lightning strike
follow a filamentary path along regions of low electrical resistance near the Earth's surface,
generating an electric field above the Earth. This electric field serves as the source of
power and motion for the phenomenon known as ball lightning. The theory posits that ball lightning
is an electric discharge characterized by continuous variations on a microsecond
timescale. Distortions in the space charge, brought about by positive and negative ions,
can produce a local maximum in the electric field approximately 1 meter above the Earth's surface,
sustaining a time-varying discharge with properties akin to those of ball lightning.
The motion of a ball of lightning is contingent upon the electric field
linked to the dispersing charge along the filamentous path near
the surface. This might account for the observed phenomenon where ball
lightning frequently moves in a direction opposite to the prevailing breeze or wind.
Electric breakdown in air typically requires a field strength of about 30 kilocoulombs
per centimeter (kC/cm). However, once a conducting air plasma has formed,
it can be sustained by a significantly lower field strength of 5 kilovolts per centimeter (kV/cm).
According to this theory, ball lightning is proposed to be a time-varying glow discharge,
akin to corona discharge. Maintaining glow discharges at atmospheric pressure
can be challenging due to rising temperatures, increased ionization, higher electron current,
and subsequent electric arc formation. Many instances of ball lightning observation
conclude with a loud explosion, which aligns with rapid gas expansion concurrent with
the swift formation of an electric arc. The discharge is promptly terminated as a result
of the rapid dispersal of negative charges through the highly conductive arc channel,
causing the elimination of the local maximum in electric field.
Convective cooling, facilitated by the movement of the ball lightning,
helps sustain the discharge in the glow state. Conversely, when the motion of the
ball is constrained, it is more likely to lead to the formation of an electric arc.
Efforts to replicate ball lightning in laboratory settings using electric arcs
have typically resulted in the generation of balls originating from molten particles
from the electrodes, lacking the essential characteristics of natural ball lightning.
Plasmoid Theory:
A plasmoid is a coherent, stable, and often self-contained structure of plasma,
a state of matter composed of charged particles such as ions and electrons. In the context of
ball lightning, the plasmoid theory proposes that the luminous sphere is a form of plasma
that is somehow generated during lightning events or electrical discharges. Plasmoids
are often associated with strong magnetic fields that help confine and stabilise the plasma. They
are capable of storing energy and this may explain the observed longevity and movement
of ball lightning. This energy might be released in bursts, contributing to the dynamic behaviour.
The major draw back of this theory is the stability and
longevity of the structure compared to the accounts of ball lightning.
In 2002 two russian scientists developed a technique for producing water-based ball
plasmoids. The Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics conducted experiments involving plasmoids
created above a water surface through electrical discharges, inspired by the Russian concept.
The experimental setup features a bucket made of acrylic glass filled with water,
containing two electrodes: a copper electrode positioned at the bottom and a central electrode
crafted from a thick wire suspended just above the water's surface. A ceramic sleeve encircles
the central electrode, isolating a small water reservoir from the rest of the water.
During the experiment, a voltage of 4.8 kilovolts and a current ranging from 50 to 130 amperes
flows through the water for approximately 150 milliseconds. A luminescent plasma ball emerges
from the water's surface above the central electrode and endures for about half a second.
In-depth analysis disclosed that roughly 10 milligrams of water vaporized from the
10 liters present, and the plasmoid carried about 4 kilojoules of energy. Manipulating
the energy content of the plasmoid enabled an extension of its lifetime.
Utilizing a high-speed camera, researchers captured the formation process,
revealing an initial surface discharge with filament-like structures before
the plasmoid assumes its spherical shape. Owing to the plasmoid's high temperature,
approximately 4000 Kelvin, it adopts a mushroom-like structure. At this temperature,
it's capable of generating an intense emission due to the excitation of atoms and molecules.
The color and intensity of this luminosity can be altered by varying the salts in the water.
Surrounding the hot plasma ball, a cooler edge region forms a protective skin. When a sheet of
paper was placed in the path of the plasmoid, it remained unaffected. The plasmoid deformed
and extinguished without any impact on the paper, contrary to reports about natural ball lightning.
At present, no single theory has emerged to comprehensively explain the formation
of ball lightning or the processes involved. It is conceivable that our characterization
of ball lightning encompasses a spectrum of distinct phenomena,
each governed by disparate mechanisms and factors.
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